PROXIMATE (NUTRIENT CONTENT) ANALYSIS OF DIOSCOREA BULBIFERA

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CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction/ Literature Review – – 1
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Materials and Methods – – – – 5
2.1 Collection and Preparation of Sample – 5
2.2 Determination of Moisture Content – – 5
2.3 Determination of Percentage Crude Protein – 7
2.4 Determination of Ash Content – – – 10
2.5 Determination of Crude Fact – – – 11

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Results – – – – – – – 14
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Discussion – – – – – – 16
References – – – – – – 23
Appendix – – – – – – 19
ABSTRACT
This study is part of the effort to find out and document the nutrient compositions of the Dioscorea bulbifera (Aerial yam on air potato). Dioscorea bulbifera is among the many species of yam that can be found on Nigeria. The tissue is known to be a good source of food nutrients such as carbohydrate, crude protein, crude fat, fibre, Ash and moisture. As in many other yam species, moisture (64%) constitutes the greatest composition in percentage, followed by carbohydrate (29.03%), crude protein (1.1%), Ash (1.5%), crude fibre (0.67%) and crude fat (0.4%), with crude fat being the lowest in quantity. Dioscorea bulbifera is also known to contain some mineral elements such as potassium, calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, and sodium. Among the mineral elements potassium is found to be the highest while magnesium the lowest.
CHAPTER THREE

1.1 Introduction and literature Review
Dioscorea bulbifera (Aerial yam or Air potato) belongs to the family of dioscoreaceae. It is a vigorous climber plant reaching up to 6 meters or more with smooth stems ranging from 1 to or more with smooth steams ranging from 1 to 8mm in diameter, twinning in clockwise direction. It is found in both Africa and Asia, with slight differences between those found in the two places (Hamon et al., 1995). The leaves are cordate-orbicular to ovate-orbicular, strongly acuminate, 15-30cm long and broad; the petioles are thickened at the base with ear-like projection that often encircled then stem. The flowers are small (though larger than those of many cultivated yams), about 3mm long, closely appressed to the pedicel in long axillary or terminal racemes. The leaves and bulbils of Dioscoroea bulbifera are used for traditional medicine in many areas (Coursey, 1997). The yam specie produces aerial starchy bulbils which are usually grey or brown in colour with white or yellow mucilaginous flesh; they are about the size of potato (hence the name air potato) ranging form about 3 to 10cm in diameter and usually weight about 0.5kg but can be as heavy as 2kg. Dioscorea bulbifera is cultivated for their bulbils which are consumed once they are cooked like potatoes in water with oil and other local ingredients or by boiling. Apart form starch, the bulbils contain other chemical elements such as protein, fats, fibres and minerals (Tindall, 1983; Abara et al., 2000). Dioscorea bulbifera is cultivated at the beginning of the raining season form March to June. Bulbils are formed at the leaves armpit. In African races of the plant, these bulbils are sharply angled, while those of Asian races are spherical to ellipsoid. The ground tubers arise form a swelling of the young stem and enlarged rapidly as storage organs. Both bulbils and tubers are edible although tubers are usually hard, bitter and unpalatable, and selection for the bulbils appears to have taken place in early times as some varieties, both Asian and African lack significant underground tubers. Bulbils are usually harvested after senescence and death of the plant. At that period of vegetable cycle of the plant, the bulbils fall down. For farmers, the fall of the bulbils is the only one indication of maturity in the Dioscorea bulbifera.
Dioscorea bulbifera is one of the group of crops termed roots and tubers which together with cereals such as maize, rice and wheat constitute thee main source of energy in the tropics, widely grown and consumed amongst various communities in the tropics.
The edible species of Dioscorea bulbifera are grown and distributed extensively in West Africa. The Carribean Islands, South, East Asia and West India. The wild forms occur mainly in Africa and Asia. Dioscorea bulbifera is a good source of calories and minerals such as Iron, calcium and phosphorous (Tindall, 1983; Abara et al., 2000). The moisture, ash, protein, fat, fibre and carbohydrate content of yam vary among species and between cultivars.
Data from available literatu

DETERMINATION OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION OF WELL WATER IN ABAKPA AREA OF ENUGU METROPOLIS.

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ABSTRACT
The aims of this research work were; to determine possible heavy metal contaminant of well water in Abakpa area of Enugu metropolis and to inform the community and others of their health effect.
Well water was collected after an extended stagnation (overnight) from a closed well behind kerosene bus- stop at Abakpa. The sampling was limited by the high cost of the reagent needed for the laboratory test use of the analytical instrument and apparata. Besides, the number of wells in Abakpa were not two nor three but very many. Thus to prove heavy metal contamination of well water in Abakpa a well was chosen. This well’s water was chosen because looking at its color and odour one may infer the water was clean good for drinking. Distilled water was also used in the experimental aspect of some the metals (Ni and Co).
The analytical instrument that was used is portable data logging spectrophotometer. The reagents were copper ver 1 reagent powder pillow, citric acid powder pillow, ferrous iron powder pillow sodium period ate powder pillow, potassium 1 reagent powder pillow, buffer powder pillow – yellow, phthalates phosphate reagent powder pillow and bromphenol blue indicator. Other materials were 10 Nu sample cell, 25 ml sample cell dropper, 1 ml pipette, flat bottom conical flask and funnel. The following heavy metal contaminants; copper, manganese, iron, chromium, nickel, barium, and cobalt were tested for and were found present at trace level; 0.01, 1.3, 0.22, 0.01,0.59, 34, and 0.03 mg/L respectively.

LIST OF TABLES.
Table 1. Specifications for Portable Water.
Table 2. The Sources and Health Effects of Heavy Metal
Contamination
Table 3. Result.
Table 4. Vital and Detailed Information on the Procedures

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 background information 1
1.2 Statement of problem 2
1.3 Aims of the study 2
1.4 Research questions 3
1.5 Significance of the study 3
1.6 Limitations of the study 4
1.7 Justification 5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature review 6
2.1 water 6
2.2 Water supply 7
2.3 Well water 8
2.4 Heavy metal contamination 8
2.5 Specifications for portable water 9
2.6 The sources and health effects of
heavy metal contamination 11
2.7 Detecting heavy metal contaminants in well water 12
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology 14
3.1 methods 14
3.2 Materials 14
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Result and discussion 16
4.1 result 16
4.2 Discussion 17
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Recommendation and conclusion 19
5.1 Recommendations 19
5.2 Conclusion 21
Appendix – the working principles of the
Analytical instrument 22
References. 25
CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INEORMATION
This study is on the determination of heavy metal contamination of well water in Abakpa, Enugu metropolis. Water to a chemist is a chemical compound with two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen in each of its molecules. It has multi – uses and indispensable for continuous existence of plants and animals. One of its artificial sources is well water from well if impure or contaminated is not safe for its beneficiaries whether used directly or indirectly.
Heavy metal is one of its pollutants. They cannot be detected by sight, taste or smell but by chemical analysis using suitable analytical techniques. When water is not safe to its beneficiaries it means there are adverse effects due to the presence of contaminants. Through the determination of the contaminants the problem haly sowed. Determination in this context means finding out or calculating the heavy metal contaminants (qualitatively and quantitatively). Preventive measures can be taken and the pharmacists and doctors can offer lasting solution after knowing the source of the problem.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Heavy metal contamination in very harmful. There are adverse effect associated with it. There effects may be health environmental or irrigational depending on the use of contaminated water. In consequence of the above fact, the following are subject of concern; how can heavy metal contaminan

THE HERBARIUM TECHNIQUE

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ABSTRACT

Collection, processing and classification of plant, leaves specimens covering eight (8) families of plants with eight different species was done. This technique was done to establish a herbanum for the biology laboratory of science laboratory technology, IMT Enugu at its campus III of the eight families coverered, six were monocotyledon and these were families, Enphobiaceae, Myrtaceae, Gramineae, Meliaceae and compositae while two others were of Dicotyledon’s families, Papilionacea and Papilionacea and all these were Angiosperm. The plant specimens were systematically lodged in the herbarium cabinet in which they were appropriately labeled for future use. The procedures and technique involved carefully collection of plant specimens, laying of the specimens, pressing, drying, mounting, identification, documentation and storage of the plant specimens (leaves).
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Background Information
Aim and Objectives of the Study
Statement of Problem
Hypothesis
Significance of the Study
Limitation of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
Purpose of Herbarium
Nature of a Herbarium
Uses of Herbarium

CHAPTER THREE
Materials and Methods
Materials
Methods
Collection of Plant Samples
Processing of Plant Samples

CHAPTER FOUR
Results and Discussion
Classification of Plants Samples
Discussion

CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and Recommendation
Conclusion
Recommendation

REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
According to Clamberland (1994), herbarium can simply be defined as a collection of dried, preserved and pressed plant specimens which are arranged systematically, serving as a taxonomic refernce of plants for their identification and classification. He further defines it as a repository of preserved and labeled plant specimen to allow easy access and achival storage. The herbarium is useful for research issdentification of plants and for comparison of materials with precious collection. It is also a growing source of knowledge about th vegetation of an area. Its effectiveness and value depend on the care with which the specimens are preserved, mounted, completeness of identification, labeling, satisfactory arrangement and maintenance of the collection.
Dried and mounted specimen are stored in cabinets with tiht fitting doors. The storage cabinets is provided with partitions in which the families of plants may be arranged in alphabetical order or (more usually) in some presumed phylogenetic order. The specimens are typically in form of herbarium sheets, pressed and dried plants have been glued to a sheet of heavy paper, together with a labeled data. The label describes information which include the plants Latin names, the origin of the collections, the date of collection, and the name of the collector. Within the cabinet the specimens are arranged according to the family, genus and species they represent as well as the geographic location from which they were collected.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
AIM: Construction of a herbarium.
OBJECTIVES INCLUDES
i. To construct a herbarium.
ii. To identify plants

ANALYSIS OF THE EXTRACTS OF THE SEEDS OF CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS FOR ALKALOIDS

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 2
1.2 AIMS OF THE STUDY 4
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 4
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 5
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 5
1.6 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY 5

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE
ALKALOIDS 6
2.2 OCCURRENCE AND FUNCTIONS OF
ALKALOIDS IN PLANTS 8
2.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALOIDS 9
2.4 ALKALOIDS CLASSIFICATION 10
2.4.1 PYRIDINE GROUP 11
2.4.2 PYRROLIDING GROUP 12
2.4.3 TROPANE GROUP 12
2.4.4 INDOLIZING GROUP 12
2.4.5 QUINOLINE GROUP 13
2.4.6 ISOQUINOLINE GROUP 13
2.4.7 PYENATHYLAMINE GROUP 14
2.4.8 PHENANTHRENE GROUP 14
2.4.9 INDOLE GROUP 14
2.4.10 ERGOLINES 15
2.4.11 BETA-CARBOLINE 15
2.4.12 YOHIMBANS 16
2.4.13 VINCA ALKALOIDS 16
2.4.14 KRATOM 16
2.4.15 TABERNANTHE – IBOGA ALKALOIDS 16
2.4.16 STRYCHNS NUX-VIMICA ALKALOIDS 17
2.4.17 PURINE GROUP 17
2.4.18 TERPENOID GROUP 17
2.5 ALKALOID ISOLATION 17
2.6 ALKALOID DETECTION 19
2.7 ALKALOID CONTENTS IN CASSIE
OCCIDENTALIS SEED 20
2.8 PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENT
(PLANT CHEMICALS) OF CASSIA
OCCIDENTALIS LINN 22
2.9 BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES AND CLINICAL
RESEARCH OF CASSIE OCCIDENTALIS 23
2.10 PHARMACOLOGICAL STUDIES ON
CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS LINN 26
2.11 EVALUATION ON IN-VITRO ANTIMICROBIAL
ACTIVITIES OF CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS LINN 29
2.12 ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF
ANTRAQUINONE GLYCOSIDE FROM THE
SEED OF CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS LINN 30
2.13 TWO NEW ATHRAQUINONE FROM THE
SEED OF CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS LINN 32
2.14 EMODINE AN ANTIBACTERIAL
ANTHRAQUINONE FROM THE ROT OF
CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS LINNS 36
2.15 ETHNOBOTALNICAL INFO AND MEDICAL
USES OF CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS LINN. 37
2.16 CURRENT PRACTICAL USES OF
CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS 38
2.17 SEED OF CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS AS
USED FOR MAKING GELATOMANNAN GUM 41
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 43
3.1 MATERIALS 43
3.2 REAGENT USED 44
3.3 COLLECTION AND PREPARATION OF PLANT
SEED EXTRACTS 45
3.4 EXTRACTION 46
3.5 TEST FOR ALKALOID 46
3.5.1 DRANGENDORFF’S REAGENT TEST 47
3.5.2 MAYER’S TEST 47
3.5.3 WAGNER AND LUGOIL’S TEST 47

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS 49
4.1 TABLE I 49
4.2 TABLE II 50
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 51
5.1 DISCUSSION 51
5.2 CONCLUSION 52
5.3 RECOMMENDATION 53

REFERENCES 55
APPENDICES
ABSTRACT
The isolation and detection of alkaloid from the plant seed of Cassia occidentalis from leguminoceae family was carried out using solvent extraction process. The dried powered seed was soaked in a sample bottle using 1, 1- dichloromethane. After 3 days of occasional shaking, it was filtered, and the crude alkaloid was extracted using batch method.
Purification process of the crude alkaloid was not carried out. Thin layers chromatographic separation process was also not carried out. The crude alkaloid extracted from the seed of the plant was used.
The test for alkaloid was carried out using Drangendorff’s reagent, Mayer’s reagent and Wagner and Lugol’s reagent. The following reagent shows a positive test. Dragendorff’s reagent yield a Reddish-brown precipitation, Mayer’s reagent yields a cream precipitate, while Wagner’s and Lugol’s reagent yields a Reddish-brown precipitate.
The presence of these precipitates indicates the presence of alkaloid in the seed of cassia occidentalis.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDIES
Alkaloids are larger groups of basic organic substance of natural origin usually plant which contains carbon, hydrogen and one or more nitrogen atoms. The nitrogen content is usually present in a heterocyclic ring such as in pyrrole, pyridine, pyrrolidine, quinoline or isoquinoline. It can be naturally occurring compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms (Finar I.L 2007).
According to Rogers M. F and Wink M. (1998), alkaloids are specific class of chemical compound found in plants and occasionally animals. Many have long historics as poison, narcotics hallucinogens and medicinal agents.
Generally, alkaloids are basic alkaline substances which can neutralizes acids. The basicity of alkaloids depends on lone pairs of electrons on their nitrogen atom thus forming salts with mineral acids such as HCL and H2SO4 and organic acids such as tartaric acid or malic acid. Alkaloids must be a product of plant or animal metabolism and must contain at least one nitrogen atoms that can be active as a base in acid-base reaction. Alkaloids could be classified either by the biological system in which they occur or by their chemical structure.
Hesse M. (2005), Said that most alkaloids contain oxygen but occasionally as in nicotine, this element is absence such oxygen free compounds are usually volatile. They vary widely in properties from one substance to the other. Some are relatively simple with a few as five carbon eg. xanthine, solamine is complicated with as many as 44 carbon atoms. Many compounds, although may fit some definition of alkaloids which are excluded from the group because. It can simply be done practically. Purines, pyridine, pyrazine, vitamins, antibiotics and amino sugar are all excluded.

CASSIA OCCIDENTALIS LINN.
The plant cassia occidentalis also commonly known as Negro coffee or coffee weed is a herb found in many countries including India, South America, and some parts of Africa. It belongs to the family Leguminosea. It’s habitat is likely meadows, pastures wastes places and it grow abundantly after rain. The leave are pinnately compounded with four to six (4 – 6) pars of smooth long-pointed ovate leaflet that has a sharp tip. Flowers occurs in leaf axils. Sepals are green and long. The petals are yellow and long. The stamens are of two different length. The pod is smooth and slender, slightly curved and dark brownish in colour. The seeds are dull and flattened on both ends. The seeds, leaves and other parts of the plants have been investigated and showed that it is highly medicinal. It has also been used for the treatment of inflammation, fever, liver disorder constipation, fungal infection, ulcers, respiratory infection and snake bite etc. The seeds when roasted are used as an alternative form of coffee tea.

1.3 AIMS OF THE STUDY
This project work is aim

FORMULATION OF ARTIST PAINT

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ABSTRACT
This study was carried out principally for the formulation of artist paint using available raw materials. Paint simplified is a material which may be applied to surfaces in relatively thin layers and which changes to a solid and may occur by evaporation of solvents, by chemical reaction or by combination of the two. Artist paint is the paint used by artists to do their paintings. These paints comprises of the water color paint, poster color paint, oil paint, acrylic paint and so on. The method generally used in this work was first, the collection of pigment of different colors, grinding the gypsum and then mixing of the substances. After which the substances was thoroughly stirred for proper mixture and so as to obtain finely non-granulled paint. The product is much highly efficient than individual paints. And it is cheaper to operate from this project. It is quite possible to harness our natural endowment that will compete prodigiously with one produced abroad, hence, our artists will do her expensive painting and the need to import artist’s paints will be avoided.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Properties of Artist Paint
1.2 Aim and Objective
1.3 Statement of Problem
1.4 Justification of Study
1.5 Limitation of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Kinds of Artist Paint
2.2 Properties of the Backbone Composition of Artist Paint
2.3 The Backbone Composition
2.4 The Characteristics Features of the Backbone Composition of Artist Paint
2.5 Principles Guiding an Effective Artist Paint Formulation
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology
3.1 Raw Materials and Equipment
3.2 Formulation
3.3 Percentage Measurement of Materials Used
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results/Discussion
4.1 Results
4.2 Discussion
4.3 Observations
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendation
5.3 Reference

TABLE OF FIGURES
Fig Pages
CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Paints usually consists of finely powdered insoluble materials, chiefly pigments, (which contributes opacity, color, and hardness and bulk to the film, suspended in a liquid binding medium known as a vehicle or binder, and a solvent or thinner which controls the consistency.

1.1 PROPERTIES OF ARTIST PAINT
Artist paints, water color in particular are made by grinding in a gum Arabic binding medium, together with certain necessary modifying ingredients. Clycerine and honey or sugar syrup (plasticizers) are often added in order to keep the colors from becoming mouldy and a wetting agent (such as ox gall) to make the colors “ take” well and spread uniformly on the paper. The proposition of the binder to the pigment is carefully balanced to give the pain, the exact correct properties. Upon application of the paints, the tiny grains of pigment become embedded in the coarse meshes of the paper, and this action is of as much importance in holding the color to the paper as he adhesive action of the gum binder.
The careful balance of the modifying ingredients in artist paint is necessary not only to give the correct working properties, but to ensure the proper balance of solubility that is the dried layer of a good artist paint must be sufficiently resistant so that subsequent brush strokes will not pick it up. On the other hand, the paint should not be so insoluble that one can not soften or run into it. Acqueous paints contain much less surplus binder. Unlike oil paint, the bulk of the paint – the water –evaporates completely on drying, leaving the pigment particles exposed partially to the air. This is not only causes brightness of lives and a mathe effect, but also eliminate a good many ill to which improperly painted oils are subject. However to achieve a performance a different set of precaution is necessary, because the colors are inherently less resistant to atmospheric conditions.
Water colors paintings leaves a very thin layer of pigment particles sufficiently held together to be a permanent coating. This thin layer or film, in contrast to the heavy of oil paint’s defects, such as cracking, peeling or blistering even so watercolors can be just oils if properly preserved.
In other to produced artist paint, many factors need to be considered.
They include;
– composition
– condition of watercolor paint in the container
– viscosity
– opacity and spreading rate
– drying time
– Fastness to light i.e. the paint shall have little or no color change.
– Financers of curing i.e. when tested using “Hegman lange”, the paint shall be finely ground to a max of less than 10 mirons (-10um)
– Bend tester: when tested the paint film shall not show cracking or loss of adusion.
– Resistant to mould, insects.
The artists paint has to be formulated such that its composition has to be one that performs its specific functions under the stated condition.
1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVE
This work is aimed at developing an economic and indigenous way of producing artist paint using local /available raw materials in