The influence of conflict management effectiveness on administrative staff  productivity in tertiary institutions(Education)

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CHAPTER ONE  

                                          INTRODUCTION                 

1.1    Background to the study                                            

Conflict in an organization is a state of discord by the actual and opposing power which arise from the pursuit of divergent interests, goals and aspirations by individuals and groups in the organization or social environment. This is so because changes in the social environment, such as different ideologies, beliefs, principles and social status which develop a sense of tussle and disagreement with each other and when this happens, the productivity of such organization is undermined Owoseni (2012). The researcher is looking at the effective conflict management strategies that can be adopted in the tertiary institutions to manage conflict situations without rendering the organization porous for incessant conflicts. Otite and Albert (1999) submitted that the most quoted traditional definitions regarding conflict as a struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are neutralized, injured or eliminated by their rivals.   In this sense, conflict may be seen as a way of settling problem originating from the opposing interest and also attributable to an enduring power struggle between workers and their employers.    Contrary to the prevailing perception, conflict indeed had played quite a positive role in several respect for progressive and good governance of the universities. After reconciliation from the conflicting parties better ideas are produced, clarification of individual views, people willingly search for new approaches ,and long standing problems brought to the surface and resolved.

Alper, Tjosvold and Law (2000) assert that conflict occurs when the actions or beliefs of one or more members of a group are unacceptable to others and hence are resisted by one or more members of the group just like the crisis that came up in the University of Calabar in the year 2011 between students and the school management over sudden increments of school fees which led to loss of properties, goodwill as well as loss of opportunity, this issues would have been averted if proper conflict management strategies were adopted.  Karl Marx (1818) agreed that conflict is a clash, confrontation, battle or struggle that could come up in any organization. Eventually, Park and Bourgess in Otite (1999) has the same view that conflict is truly designed to resolve any divergent dualism and achieve some kind of unity even if it is through the annihilation of one of the conflict parties.

Alper, Tjosvold, and Law (2000) also confirmed that conflict occurs at all levels of organic existence and it is pervasively ubiquitous and most destructive. It has a capacity to severally constrain development and endeavor by destroying infrastructure, interrupting the production process and diverting resources away from product users. Workers who are the owners of labour the world over have been known to organize themselves into associations or unions with the primary objective of promoting and protecting themselves from unnecessary abuse of their human rights by their employers as well as by fellow workers. In essence, workplace conflict can arise among the workers themselves because people disagree for a number of reasons such as follows: Alper, Tjosvold, and Law (2000).

i)       They see things differently because of differences in understanding and view point.

ii)       People have different styles, principles, values, beliefs which determine their choices and objectives.

iii)      People have different ideological and philosophical outlooks, as in the case of different political parties.

iv)      People of different social status think differently and these develop in them the sensitivity to disagree which may result in conflicts of views or opinions. Contrary to the prevailing perception, conflict indeed had played quite a positive role in several respect for progressive and good governance of the universities. After reconciliation from the conflicting parties better ideas are produced, clarification of individual views, people willingly search for new approaches ,and long standing problems brought to the surface and resolved.

 

 

 

 

 

1.2    Theoretical framework

The following theories were discussed to provide a framework for       this study.

1.2.1 The human relations theory; by Mary, Follets  (1954).

1.2.2 The administrative management theory; by Henry, Fayol (1949).

1.2.3 The conflict theory; by Karl, Marx  (1883).

1.2.1 The Human Relations Theory

Follett (1954), a great proponent of human relations theory was also refered to as “prophetess of management”. Follet (1868 – 1933) a Harvard Professor in social works practiced Gestalt psychology and business consultancy. The human relations theory involves the study of motives, behavior and the development of criteria for designing organization which will stimulate members co-operation in order to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization.

It attaches much importance to individuals motives, goals and aspirations in the conceptualization of organizations. The organizational success is explained in terms of individual, group motivational and inter-personal relationships, particularly the relationship between administration and staff.   She is associated with the discovery of various phenomena such as the “Group think effect” in committee meetings; creativity exercises like ”brainstorming” and most importantly, what later became Management–By-Objectives (MBO) and  Total Quality Management (TQM) and Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI).       Follett admonished employers on the over-management of employees, a process now known as “micromanaging”. The  importance of informal processes within any organization, and the idea of the “authority of expertise” which really served to modify the typology of authority developed by German contemporary (Peretomode 2006).   Her ideas on negotiation, power and employee participation were highly influential in the development of the fields of organizational studies, alternative dispute resolution and human relations movement.  Her approach to conflict was to embrace it as a mechanism of diversity and an opportunity to develop integrated solutions rather than simply compromising (Bassett, 2011).                                                        Follet propounded four principles of coordination where she noted certain principles that must be followed to make coordination effective and these includes;

i)       Principle of early stage – coordination must start at an early stage in the management process. It must start during the planning stage.

ii)       Principle of continuity – co-ordination must be a continuous process. It must not be a one time activity.

iii)      Principle of direct contact – All managers must have a direct contact with their subordinates. This will result in good relations between the managers and their subordinates. This is so because direct contact helps to avoid misunderstanding, misinterpretations and disputes between managers and subordinates.

iv)      Principles of reciprocal relations: The decisions and actions of all the people (managers and employees) and departments of the organization are interrelated.

If decision or action is taken by managers, they should first find out the effect of that decision or action on other persons (Kalyan & Sulaiman 2011).  It should be noted however that Follett’s influence can also be seen indirectly in the work of Ron Lippitt, Ken Benne, Lee Bradford, Edie Seashore and others at the National Training Laboratories in Bethel, Marine, where T-group methodology was first theorized and also developed (Kleiner, 1996).  This implies that Follett’s work set the stage for a generation of effective progressive changes in management philosophy, style and practice, revolutionizing and harmonizing the American Workplace, and allowing the fulfillment of Douglas McGregor’s management vision – quantum leap in productivity effected through the humanization of the work place (Wikipedia, 2012).

Human relation theory has its origin from the work of Mayo (1946) of the “Hawthorne studies” which was conducted in the 1920’s at the Hawthorne works of the western electric company, USA.

Mayo stated that the reason workers are more strongly motivated by informal things is that individuals have a deep psychological need to believe that their organization cares about them. Workers want to believe their organization is open, concerned and willing to listen. Mayo believes that:

i)       Supervisors should not act like supervisors, they should be friends, and counselors to the workers.

ii)       managers should not try to micro-manage all affairs.

iii)      People should be periodically asked how they feel about their work and their supervisors.

iv)      Humanistic supervision plus morale equals to productivity.

v)      Humor and sarcasm are good in the workplace – it is all part of group dynamics.

vi)      Workers should be consulted before changes are made and room should be given to workers to participate in decision making.

Bernard (1938) was a formidable part of the human relations movement. Bernard in his book “The functions of the Executive”, noted that managers need to know more about human behaviors, and in particular, more about the informal groups of an organization, especially the relationship between workers and outsiders. Chester Bernard is best known for his concept of “zones of indifference” which is the idea that good leaders should try to take middle – of – the – road, or neutral, position on issues  because each person’s attitude usually has such a middle – ground area where they will believe or obey without question. Bernard noted that a certain amount of co-operation between management and employees is necessary and that authority is not all that is necessary as the classical schools of management would have it.  He reinforced what became a fundamental idea in organizational theory; that all organizations pose either as a formal organization or an informal organization.

Bernard asserted that the informal organization regulates as if employees will obey all management orders and instructions. The author then went ahead to outline three basic types of orders that can be given by managers to employees;

i)       Orders that are unquestionably acceptable that are always obeyed because they lie within what they called their zone of indifference, or typically dealt with things that are part of an employee’s job description and are routine.

ii)       Orders that may or may not be followed, depending upon the employee and the conduct accepted by the employees informal organization because such orders come close to being unacceptable.

iii)      Orders that are completely unacceptable and that will always be disobeyed because these kinds of orders go beyond an employee’s zone of indifference.

Despite the contributions of the human relations theory to the practice of modern management, the movement has been criticized on several grounds. The human relations theory is seen by management scholars to be too idealistic in trying to remove all forms of conflict within organization.(O’Conner,2011). Inyang (2004), has criticized the human relation movement for having the tendency to be pro-worker, neglecting the primary objective of industrialized profit and also neglecting the important role of trade unions. However, some conflicts in work situation may not be solved by this incompatibility between the interests of management and those of labour in spite of the difficulties that may arise between them. The relevance of this study is clearly seen in the progressive change in management philosophy of establishing a veritable working relationship model for employers and employees. It also set a stage for the involvement of staff in virtually all the important stages of management decision making without necessarily rendering the organization porous for possible abuse by employee unions.

 

1.2.2 The administrative management theory Henry Fayol (1949)

The administrative management theory is associated with Henry Fayol, a renowned French Engineer, manager and industrialist. Fayol (1949) analyzed the activities of industrial undertakings into six groups: technical (production, manufacture and adaptation); commercial (buying, selling, exchange and market information), financial (obtaining capital and making optimum use of available funds); security (safeguarding property and persons); accounting (information on the economic position, stock taking, balance sheet, costs, statistics); and managerial.

He further divided the activities into five elements which are to forecast and plan; to organize; to command; to co-ordinate; and to control. Fayol suggested that a set of well-established principles would help concentrate general discussion on management theory, but emphasized that these principles must be flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances.

He recognized that there was no limit to the principles of management but advocated fourteen (14) in his writing and these are:

1)Division of labour: The principles of specialization of labour in order to concentrate activities for more efficiency and increase in productivity.

2)Authority and responsibility: Authority is the right to give order and the power to ensure obedience.

3)      Discipline: Discipline is absolutely essential for the smooth running of organization and without discipline, there is bound to be waywardness among the workers.

4)      Unity of command: An employees should receive orders from only one superior.

5)      Unity of direction: One hand and one plan for a group of activities having the same objectives.

6)      Subordination of individual interests: The interest of one employee or a group should not prevail over that of the organization.

7)      Remuneration of personnel: Compensation should be fair and as far as possible afford satisfaction.

8)      Centralization: Centralization is essential to the organization and is a natural consequence of organization.

9)      Scalar chain: The scalar chain is the chain of superiors ranging from ultimate authority to the lowest rank.

10)     Orders: The organization should provide an orderly place for every individual. A place for everyone and everyone in their place.

11)     Equity: Sense of justice transform the organization.

12)     Stability and tenure of personnel: People need time to learn their job.

13)     Initiative: One of the greatest satisfaction is formulating and carrying out a plan.

14)     Esprit de corps: Harmonious effort among workers is the key to organizational success (Mullins, 1996).

Furthermore, the theory considers management as a profession where people can be trained and developed. The administrative management theory sees broad policy issues as the responsibility of top managers, which they have to handle seriously for organizational survival and growth. It relates with the work in the sense that administrators should not see administration as positions but as responsibility directly related/connected to their profession and that failure in administration means failure in the profession. More so, if the organization must succeed, the administrators should master the heuristics of the administrative profession and follow them seriously and professionally.

 

1.2.3 The conflict theory

Several theories which emphasize social conflicts have roots in the ideas of Karl Marx (1818). As a great German theorist and political activist, he saw conflict theories as theories of social stratification which anchor on analysis of capitalism, social change and a view of human liberation.

Even though it is a necessary condition for social change to occur, individuals or groups interacting in the society which share different interest and have different economic capabilities always resist change. According to Marx, classes develop on the basis of the different positions or roles which individuals play in the productive scheme of a society. The material view of history begin from the premise that the most important determinant of social life is the work people are doing most especially the work that result in provision of the basic necessities of life, food, clothing and shelter. He maintained that, everything of value in society results from human labour, thus it is clearly seen that working men and women are engaged in making society the conditions to suit them for their own existence.

The three primary aspects of Marxism are as follows:

1)      The dialectical and materialist concept of history which implies that human kind of history is fundamentally a struggle between social class. The productive capacity of society is the foundation of society and just as this capacity increases over time, the social relations of production and class relations evolve through definite stages like slavery, primitivism, communism, feudalism and capitalism esterra.

2)      The critique of capitalism was seen by Marx as dominant in 19th century. For Marx, the central institution of a capitalist society is private property, the system by which capital such as money, machines, tools, factories and other material objects used in production are controlled by a smaller minority of the population. Marx argues that in a capitalist society, an economic minority who are called the bourgeoisies referring to the owners of capital dominate and exploit the economic majority who are called proletariat referring to the workers whose only property is their  labour and time which they have to sell to the capitalists. Owners are seen as making profits by paying workers less than their work is worth and thus exploiting them. He argued that while the production process is socialized, ownership will still retain in the hands of the bourgeoisies and this forms the fundamental contradiction of capitalist society.

3)      Advocacy of proletarian revolution: In order to overcome the fetters of private property, the working class must seize political power internationally through a social revolution and restrain the capitalist classes around the world and place the productive capacities of society into collective ownership.

Basically, societies do not operate on conflict theory. If this were the case, it would likely be that a high degree of confusion within the system exist. People would individually or in groups, have been in opposition at random and this would forestall growth of the society. Thus the society’s continued existence in business would necessarily mean that conflict is in positive balance with other factors such as value consensus.

If the societal value and norms are brought to bear in the distribution of the power and means of production or in the event of conflict management then the result will be an agreement or consensus between individuals or group of the various segments of the society involved in the conflict. Invariably as long as conflicts occur within the limits of the societal system of values it is normal.

In summary, Marxist model of stratification is a useful tool in the understanding of stratification more in a capitalist society where class formation is distinct with two distinct income groups that is the rich and the poor creating a class based social stratification.

These theories are relevant to the study because, conflicts result from divergent interest of individuals or groups. The existence of class enhances conflicts because interest of different class breeds conflicts. Class formation brings about discrimination which is based on stratification of individuals or groups. Employee whose aim is to achieve high productivity should not made himself and his positions intimidated to his staff, no selfish interest, no high handed policies, no poor communication channel and poor staff welfarism. If these issues are clearly understood, indeed the workers will achieve high productivity.

1.3    Statement of the problem

Conflict occurs when there is disagreement between two parties and such situation undermines the healthy growth of an organization. Conflict situations have led to the retrogressiveness in the growth of our nations tertiary institutions.    This work is trying to solve the problem of unrest, disagreement due to divergent interest in working organization among administrative staff, In 1996 for instance, the conflict between the academic staff union of Nigeria Universities (ASUU) and Federal Government (FG) of Nigeria hindered educational activities for almost a year. The disagreement between non-academic staff union of universities and the Federal Government of Nigeria has also witnessed inconsistencies in the management of Nigerian tertiary institutions.     Besides, internal rancor created as a result of delay in salary payment and the monetization of either benefits in college of health technology have led to loss of opportunity, delay in graduation of students and even led to transferred aggression.

Also the crisis that erupted in the University of Calabar year 2011  due to disagreement between students and the management of the University over issues of school fees is a conflict situation which led to loss of properties, as well as loss of opportunities and goodwill. These are issues that would have been averted if proper conflict management techniques were adopted or if management was proactive.

Recently, there was an indefinite strike by ASUU that came up as a result of the non implementation of the 2009 agreement by the federal government. Yet, this are issues that would have been properly managed. This action has affected staff productivity by disrupting school calendar, staff ineffectiveness in their duties, over all objectives of the institutions which could mare the wishes of those whom the institutions are established to serve ( students).

The above cases and many more however, have given the impetus for researching into conflict management in tertiary institutions to explore the impact of negotiation in conflict situations as well as other conflict management techniques.

 

1.4    Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study is to examine the extent to which conflict management effectiveness may influence administrative staff  productivity in tertiary institutions.

Specifically, the study seeks to determine:

1.       The relationship between effective consultation and administrative staff productivity.

2.       The relationship between effective communication and administrative   staff productivity.

3.       The relationship between effective staff remuneration and administrative staff productivity.

4.       The relationship between periodic training (in-service) and administrative staff productivity.

5.       The relationship between workers participation in decision making and administrative staff productivity.

 

1.5    Research questions

To guide the study, the following research questions were posed.

1.       What is the relationship between effective consultation and administrative staff productivity in tertiary institutions?

2.       Is there any relationship between effective communication and administrative staff productivity?

3.       What is the relationship between effective staff remuneration and   administrative staff productivity?

4.       What is the relationship between effective in-service training and administrative staff productivity?

5.     Is there any relationship between effective workers participation in decision making and administrative staff productivity?

 

1.6    Statement of the hypotheses

The following hypotheses were formulated to give the direction to      the study.

1.       There is no significant relationship between effective consultation and administrative staff productivity.

2.       There is no significant relationship between effective communication and administrative staff productivity.

3.       There is no significant relationship between effective staff remuneration and administrative staff productivity.

4.       There is no significant relationship between effective periodic staff training and administrative staff productivity.

5.       There is no significant relationship between workers participation in decision making and administrative staff productivity.

 

1.7    Significance of the study

It is hoped that the research study may go a long way to throw more light on how conflicts should be managed so as to ensure optimum productivity .

Educational administrators will derived some ideas from the study; since it may give a guide on strategies and policy formulation  that may help resolve conflict in tertiary institutions.

The study may provide knowledge and new research information which may help to bridge gaps in research literature though not first of its kind. It may also help in enhancing good relationship between workers and administrators in government, non – governmental organizations, parastatals, and  labour unions in different organizations.

To government, it may reveal to them the effective conflict management strategies that can enhance productivity through  understanding of the place of motivation, in-service training, effective communication, consultation and workers participation in decision making in an establishment.

Finally, the study may further help different trade unions in institutions like Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU), Senior staff Association of Nigerian Universities (SANU) and Non-Academic Staff Union of Universities (NASUU) to spell out their functions which include the political benefits of unionism.

 

1.8    Assumptions of the study

The following assumptions underlie the study.

i)       That conflict in educational sectors has some positive effect on productivity.

ii)       That the responses provided by the respondents are reliable.

iii)      That the population used in this study is a true representation of the workers in the research area.

iv)     Conflicts can be investigated.

 

1.9    Scope of the study

The study is delimited to conflict management effectiveness in Cross River State which covers tertiary institutions in Cross River State of Nigeria. it covers only the 6 tertiary institutions located in the 3 senatorial zones of Cross River State. These include Federal College of Education Obudu (North); School of Nursing and Midwifery Itighidi (central) and University of Calabar, Calabar (South).

1.10   Limitations of the study

 

This study like any other research in education was expected to     face a number of constraints. Some of which were;

1.            The numbers of staff in each institutions varies from one another

2.            Human factor; since the topic is on conflict, people don’t want to be quoted for their response which made them to be diplomatic.

 

1.11  Definitions of terms

Conflict: Conflicts in an organization is a state of discord by the actual opposition of power, claims, lands, and interests between people working together.

Productivity: This is the ratio of output to inputs, it is the attainment of the highest level of performance with the lowest possible expenditure of resources.

Communication: it is defined as a means of sending and receiving information which could be done verbally, in writing, Symbols and in non-verbally.

Consultation: This is the coming together of a group to deliberate on matters concerning the conflicting parties for a possible solution.

Training: The process of providing instructions for the purpose of learning a skills for a particular job or activity.

Remuneration: Formal payment for a job or service rendered.

Employee: Someone who receives a salary or wages for work done for an organization or person.

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The effects of social networking on students’ performance: a case study of students in the university of calabar

 

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1  Background to the Study

Communication has become easy since the introduction of Social Networking sites. Communicating with friends and family has been easy once one has access to the internet. The internet has given us the ability to connect with people from around the world and with a few clicks of a button, one can easily exchange information with people.

Social Networking sites (SNSs) such as Myspace, Facebook, Youtube, Skype, Twitter, Whatsapp, 2go, and so forth have attracted millions of users, many of whom have integrated these sites into their daily practices.

Social Networking began in 1978 with the Bulletin Board System (BBS), (google.com). The BBS was hosted on personal computers requiring that users dial in through the modem of the host computer, exchanging information over phone lines with other users. This was the first system that allowed users to sign in and interact with each other, although it was quite slow since only one user could be logged in at a time.

The first meaningful Social Network site is Six Degrees. com (google.com). It was launched in 1997, it was the first Social Network site that allowed users to create profiles, and list their friends and in 1998 surf the friend’s list.

Social Networks have become a global phenomenon and attracted extensive population from all around the world in different ages, cultures, educational levels, etcetera. In addition to routinely checking emails, reading daily forums and Newspapers or following instant message tools.

Social Networking generally tends to help one keep in touch with friends, maintain relationships, make new friends, build groups with people around the environment or even join new groups with people they share interest or needs.

Due to the rapid increase in Social Networking sites, populating by 2005 it was reported that Myspace was getting more page views than Google, Facebook launched in 2004 became the largest Social Networking site in the world in early 2009. Facebook was first introduced in (2004) as a Harvard Social Network (Cassidy 2006).

This research work will basically look at the effects of Social Networking on students’ performance in the University of Calabar. The University of Calabar, with the acronym UNICAL is a University situated in Calabar, Cross River State, Southern Nigeria. It is one of Nigeria’s second generation Universities. The University of Calabar was a Campus of the University of Nigeria until 1975. It was established by decree to fulfill its tradition and its motto which is “knowledge for service”. The male students are known as ‘Malabites’ while the female students are ‘Malabresses’. The University has the following Faculties:

1.          The College of Medical Sciences

2.           Faculty of Management Sciences

3.          Faculty of Education

4.          Faculty of Social Science

5.          Faculty of Arts

6.          Institute of Public Policy and Administration

7.          Faculty of Law

8.          Faculty of Science

9.          Faculty of Agriculture

10.      Institute of Oceanography

11.      Graduate School

12.      University of Calabar Consultancy Services.

 

 

1.2  Statement of the Problem

There has been some controversy for sometime about the effectiveness of Social Networking on students’ academic performance. Since the evolution of Social Networking sites, parents and educators have shown great interests on its effects on students’ performance. In a school like the University of Calabar, where Social Networking has attained great heights, there is a belief that most students use the time they are supposed to read to chat online. Moreover, there is a feeling that because of too much involvement on Social Networking by students, they find it difficult to concentrate on their studies.

Based on the different views on the effects of Social Networking, the need for an effective study of Social Network is relevant as a strategy for effective and efficient analysis of its social impact on students’ academic performance.

 

 

1.3  Objectives of the study

Ø    To investigate the degree of Social Network usage by students in the University of Calabar.

Ø    To ascertain the effectiveness of Social Networks on students performance.

Ø    To investigate the roles Social Networks play on students.

Ø    To study why students communicate through Social Networks.

 

1.4  Research Questions

The following research questions are formulated for this study. It is necessary that certain questions should be asked in this study in order to get results.

1.          Is Social Networking taking the study time of students in the University of Calabar?

2.          What are the effects of Social Networks on the students?

3.          Is this era of Social Networking better than before when there was no networking sites?

 

1.5  Scope of the study

This study is mainly concerned with Social Networking sites and its usage among the students of University of Calabar. The study will try to explain the effects whether negative or positive.

 

1.6  Significance of the study

This study hopes to be significant in a number of ways. The study will reveal the effectiveness of Social Networking on students’ performance in the University of Calabar. It will help students, educators, parents and others to understand the roles of Social Networking among students.

 

1.7  Operational Definition of Terms.

Social: Relating to or involving activities in which people spend time talking to one another, it can also be seen as a connection with activities in which people meet one another for pleasures.

Networking: It is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data and information.

Social Networks: It is a platform to build and establish relations among people, who for example share interests, activities, backgrounds or real life connection.

Social Networking Sites (SNSs): It is a phrase used to describe any website that enables users to create public profiles within that Websites and form relationships with other users of the same website who access their profile.

Effects: It is a change that occurs in somebody or something as a result of something or somebody else.

Student: Is a learner who attends an educational institution.

Academic Performance: It is the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals.

Information: It is a fact, details about somebody or something, or a knowledge communicated or received concerning a particular fact or circumstance.

Communication: It is the act or process of using words, sounds, signs or behaviours to express or exchange information or to express yourself.

Evolution: It is the gradual development of something from simple to a more complex form.

 

 

 

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The impact of polygamy on children education in the southern education zone of Cross River State (Educational Adminstration)

 

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Over the years, many educational authorities have developed interest to understand the reasons for the downward trend in educational achievement of children. Obemeata (1971), and Daramola (1994) attributed it to the children’s background which depends on the type of family where they are raised. They stressed that the environmental condition and the nature of social interaction that goes on in the family may have some positive or negative influence on the education of  children. Daramola (1994) further stated that the factors affecting  children’s education  include family  type , psychological conditions in the family, availability of equal opportunities, social climate and level of proper care that exist in families they come from.

The family as a primary agent of socialization, has   powerful influence on children which could in no doubt enhance or hinder educational achievement of children depending on the social climate in such family. Variance in psycho-social emotional fortification in the polygamy family background could be an indicator to high or low educational performance of children.

Polygamy has been cited as a possible contributor to Africa’s low savings rates, widespread incidence of HIV, high levels of child mortality, and poor educational performance of children (Uwaifo, 2008).  Polygamous marriage is a system of marriage in which a man marries more than one wife at a time. The number of wives which ranges from two to many or may not depend on the religious and economic   capability  of the man. This form of marriage has given rise to what sociologists often refer to as the extended family. This is a common practice in Nigeria the varying structure of any family from society to society has brought this practice (Asikhia, 2010).

In Africa generally, Polygamy remains common in most regions stretching from Senegal to Tanzania, it is common for more than one third of married women to be polygamous (Akanle, 2007). Polygamous marriage is common in the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Islands, but is also known to occur in Europe, North America, and other Western societies (Zsolnai, 2002). To our knowledge, accurate and current statistics on the prevalence of polygamy around the world are not available. In Nigeria, Cross River state in particular estimates range from 20% to 50% of all marriages, with higher rates reported among less educated husbands and wives, among Muslims, and among rural residents; however, in recent years, there has been an observed increase in the rates of polygamy among highly educated men who can afford a second wife (Aremu,2000).

The moral decadence of the society today, may be as a result of the inability of polygamous parents to give the children adequate financial support for their education ,some polygamous family may not give their children the educational materials they need due to lack of funds. This may result in poor feeding and general maintenance of the family members. Parents serve a useful purpose in the up bringing of their children in the home, but in polygamous home there is not much in interaction between fathers and their children because of the large number.

The parents may not be able to go through their school work at home consequently, they may not be able to identify, the need of their children who may be left to grow on their own.  In fact, polygamy may affect the up bringing of children educationally, socially and morally. Furthermore, this tendency affects most polygamous home negatively, as equal opportunity is not given to the children in their educational pursuit. Adika (1987) agreed that there is gender inequality in favor of the children. Most girls from polygamous home are withdrawn from school at the tender age and they are given to husband some girls who would have loved to go to school are frustrated by the problems of non-availability of fund in the polygamous home. This leads to the eventual dropout of the girls from school.

However,  children who have escaped polygamous families have been profoundly impacted in every aspect of their education. Because of the secrecy that conceals polygamous relationships, this information is not open to public knowledge, nor easily obtained, especially outside the inter-mountain west. This area is where polygamy has its historical roots in the United States. Therefore  this research will focus on the impact of polygamy on children education in the southern education zone of Cross River State as to provide a general statement regarding the basic principles and attitudes of modern day polygamy and to describe the negative psychological impact the polygamous practice has on children education.

1.2 Theoretical framework

This study will consider the following as bases of its theoretical frame;

1.2.1 Cause and Effect Theory

Cause and effect describes how something happens, analyses why something happens; examines cause, describes effect or do both because it links situations and events together in time, with cause preceding effect (Wilkins, 1976). Furthermore, causality refers to cause-and-effect analysis, it explains why something happened, or is happening and it predicts what probably will happen. Sometimes, many different causes may be responsible for one effect, and similarly, many different effects could be produced by a single cause. In logic, causes are often distinguished in to two types: necessary and sufficient. If x is a necessary cause of y, then the presence of y necessarily implies the presence of x. The presence of x, however, does not imply that y will occur. If x is a sufficient cause of y, then the presence of x necessarily implies the presence of y. However, another cause z may alternatively cause y, thus the presence of y does not imply the presence of x (Wilkins, 1976).

Cause and effect is established through intervention trial in which two or more groups undergo the same experience except for a single facet. The single facet in this study is polygammy. Any difference in outcome is then attributed to that single facet (Omosewo, 2000). Causality (causation) denotes a logical relationship between one event (called cause) and another event (called effect) which is the direct consequence of the first. The cause in this study is polygammy while education of children  is the effect. In this study, the researcher focused on assessing family type  on children’s education, the home environment that is tensed due to  unhealthy atmosphere of quarrelling; fighting due to large family size and polygamy cannot favour learning, as the mind of the pupils will not be settled in order to give room for creativity.

Sanders  (1974) maintained that physical and psychological conditions of the home environment affect the children education. Nyarko (2010) stated that harmonious home create emotional stability in the child at home and subsequently throughout his school life. Hence the researcher was also concerned with the parenting  style (democratic, authoritarian, etc) is also influential both in the childrens’ educational process as well as in family-school relations; research such as that by Ajila and Iyiola (2007) demonstrated that a positive family climate favours the development of well-adapted, mature, stable and integrated students, and an unfavourable family climate promotes non-adaptation, immaturity, lack of balance and insecurity.

The influence of family educational climate is defined by the amount and the style of  help that children receive from the family; that is determined by elements of the family context, like the dynamic of communication and affective relationships, attitudes toward values, expectations (Aremu and Sokan, 2003). Along these same lines, Aremu (2000) reported that parental expectations have a notable influence on academic results, even when controlling for initial knowledge and socio-economic context. Stephen and Ceci (2001) found indirect relationships with performance from the student’s perception of how much importance his or her parents assign to study at home.

1.2.2  Behavioral Theory

Behavioral theories of marriage are also rooted in interdependence theory (Sanders  (1974) yet, as Stephen and Ceci (2001) note, behavioral theory differs from the intrapersonal focus of social exchange theory which emphasizes individual perceptions of attractions and alternatives. In contrast, behavioral theory adopts an interpersonal stance which asserts that marital satisfaction is related to the exchange of overt behaviors between partners. The underlying premise is that the exchange of positive, rewarding behaviors enhances marital satisfaction whereas negative, punishing behavioral exchanges decrease  marital satisfaction (Wilkins, 1976). This perspective has focused on behaviors occurring in the context of problem solving, in which distressed couples appear more likely to engage in negative behaviors than non-distressed partners.

Although the link between behavior and satisfaction has received considerable support, there is recognition that variables other than behavior are likely to be associated with marital satisfaction. Edwards (2000) have elaborated on the link between behaviors and satisfaction by considering the attributions partners make regarding overt behaviors. Although these cognitive processes are not thought of as directly associated with marital satisfaction, they are believed to influence interaction behaviors that in turn impact marital quality.

In the theoretical framework proposed by Stephen and Ceci (2001), if the behavior of one’s spouse appears to be low in negativity, unexpectedness, and self-relevance, the individual will produce subsequent behavior in the absence of additional processing. However, perceptions of high negativity, unexpectedness and self-relevance will lead to attributions regarding the specific behavior, examples of which include the intentionality of the behavior and the positive versus negative intent of the individual. These attributions in turn influence subsequent behavior. Both situations are believed to influence and be influenced by short and long-term satisfaction of partners.

1.3 Statement of problem

The practice of polygamy in southern educational  zone of Cross River State has constituted a great hindrance to the formal education of children. Equal opportunity is not given to the children by their parents in their education pursue which results to some children being withdrawn from school. The few ones that are allowed to school are subjected by going from house to house, street to street after school for hawking and other child labour activities. And it exposes the child to accident, rape and street violence, at a later stage. Lack of proper care of students by polygamous parents may lead to poor educational performance. If school materials are not provided for such student their performance may be poor.

Considering the powerful influence of the family on the child and its importance as a primary agent of socialization, there is no doubt that the academic achievement of the child can be enhanced or hindered depending on the social climate in the family. It appears that many people have not yet recognized that their family type has a great impact on their children’s academic achievement. It must first be understood that the basic structure of polygamy is authoritarian and secretive. The men who practice it believe they have the authority to govern and control their wives and children in the family relationship.

1.4 Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study will be to examine the impact of polygamy on children’s education in Southern educational zone of Cross River State. Specifically, the study will consider the following;

(i)                To examine the effect of family  type  on children’s education in Southern educational zone of Cross River State.

(ii)             To investigate  the effect of  family psychological conditions on children education in Southern educational zone of Cross River State.

(iii)           To access the effect of  gender/equal opportunities on children academic performance in Southern educational zone of Cross River State.

(iv)           To determine the influence of  family social climate on children  academic performance in Southern educational zone of Cross River State.

(v)             To evaluate the influence of parental care on children academic performance in Southern educational zone of Cross River State

1.5 Research Question

In order for the researcher to achieve the objectives of the study the following research questions will guide the study;

(i)                To what  extent does  family  type  affect children’s education in Southern educational zone of Cross River State?

(ii)             How does  family psychological conditions affect children education in Southern educational zone of Cross River State?

(iii)           To what extent does  gender/ equal opportunities in a family affect children academic performance in Southern educational zone of Cross River State?

(iv)           To what extent  does family social climate impact  children  academic performance in Southern educational zone of Cross River State?

(v)             To what extent  does lack of proper care in a family influence children academic performance in Southern educational zone of Cross River State?

1.6    Statement  of  hypothesis

The researcher will formulate the following research hypothesis;

(i)                There is no significant relationship between  family  type  and children’s education in Southern educational zone of Cross River State.

(ii)             There is no significant relationship between family psychological conditions and  children education in Southern educational zone of Cross River State.

(iii)           There is no significant relationship between gender/equal opportunities in the family  and  children academic performance in Southern educational zone of Cross River State.

(iv)           There is no significant relationship between family social climate and children  academic performance in Southern educational zone of Cross River State.

(v)             There is no significant relationship between lack of proper care and  children  academic performance in Southern educational zone of Cross River State.

1.7 Significance of the study

The findings of this study will be of benefit to educational planners, psychologists, teachers, students, parents and the society at large. To educational planners, the findings will enable them readjust their impression about putting the blame of children’s education on teachers having known that polygamy (family type) could impact education of children. This would enable them overhaul their curriculum to address the issue of control measure for the menace in the school system.

This study will assist teachers to be aware of the nature of factors that could affect  the education of children, how it relates to school performance and evolve possible ways of checking and curbing the impact this may have on children education. Psychologists and counsellors will benefit a great deal from the findings of this study as it will not only enable them identify children experiencing lack of care, poor  social climate and psychological conditions in their families. Psychologists will also be able to identify causes of  children’s poor performance in school and render suitable remedial measure.

The findings will be of help to curriculum planners because it will enable them overhaul their curriculum to accommodate the needs of individuals with unstable psychological conditions. Through this study, stakeholders will discover another possible way of checking and curbing the incessant rate at which pupils/students fail in the Southern Educational Zone of Cross River State. Besides, the parents and Nigerian society at large through these findings will avail themselves of  the various negative  impacts polygamy  has on children education ways of coping with the problem  and the right measures taken to curb this anomaly. Administrators will through the findings and recommendations of this study plan meaningful sensitization programme to cushion effect of polygamy on children education. The government will effectively design policies and programmes which will enhance the welfare of children with poor psychological conditions, lack of proper parental care as well as gender/unequal family opportunities so that parents will be able to nurture their wards properly.

1.8     Assumptions of the Study

The researcher assumed that:

(i)                Psychological conditions in the family could in family impact children’s education

(ii)             Gender/unequal opportunities in a family affect children’s academic performance.

(iii)           Family social climate influences children’s  education

(iv)           Lack of proper care influence children’s education.

1.9     Scope of the study

The study was carried out in the southern Educational Zone of Cross River State of  Nigeria, therefore any generalization of the findings should be in context of that state or any other geographical area having the same characteristics.

1.10   Limitations of the study

The researcher’s conception of the variables may not be comprehensive enough to integrate all other possible views of the definition of these variables. Other facts that exist elsewhere in which the researcher could not have access to are seen as limitation to the work, inadequate material for literature review also limited the study. Another factor worthy of mention was the reluctance or indifference on the part of respondents towards participation in the study.

1.11 Definition of terms

Polygamy: This refers to the custom of having more than one wife at the same time. The circumstance, facts or event that influence, cause or explain something. A persons social class, family status, level of education e.t.c.

Family: Is a  group consisting of one or two parents and their children. A group of people that are related by blood.

Academics:  It is connected with education, especially studying in schools and universities.

Income: Money received over certain period especially as payment for work as interest on investment. Money received from work, business.

Performance: It is an action or achievement, considered in relation to how successful it is. The ability to operate, capable of high effectiveness.

Education: Is a form of learning in which the knowledge, skills, values, beliefs and habits of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, or research.

 

 

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FACTORS AFFECTING STUDY HABIT AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY STUDY CENTER

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1   BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Habit is a second nature; it is routine of a person what he or she does in every condition. It cannot be changed; it may be good or bad. It does not get affected by the changing of place or schedules. A habit is something that is done on a scheduled, regular, planned basis and that is not relegated to a second place or optional place in one’s life. It is simply done, no reservations, no excuses, and no expectations. A study habit is; buying out a dedicated scheduled and un-interrupted time to apply one’s self to the task of learning. Without it, one does not grow and becomes self-limiting in life (Gonzalez, 1997). Study habits tell a person that how much he will learn and how far he wants to go, and how much he wants to earn. These all could be decided with the help of one’s study habits, throughout the life. The importance of study habits in student’s life it that plays a major role in their academic achievement, because without studies no one can be successful. For studying, students should use different techniques because with these techniques they can ensure good outcomes. As everybody knows that every student has different study habits. Some students can study in a crowdie place but some want silent environment for studies.

 

Although it is good to study in a peaceful environment but some time students cannot get that environment. In this manner student should have to adjust themselves in that environment like, in noisy classroom or hostels some students study in silence but some do not. If they have good study habits, they can adjust easily. Some students do not have the ability to cope up with the non-suitable environment. Due to this reason, some students lose their positions. Effective study habits help students to achieve good results (Sadia, 2005). However, the study seeks to identify the factors affecting study habit and academic performance of undergraduate student of National Open University study center.

 

An academic performance is something students achieve at school, college or university in class, in a laboratory, library or field work. An academic performance such as graduating in one’s class, sometimes a purely quantitative matter, while having the findings of lengthy, comprehensive research published by a recognized journal is also a notable academic performance (Ansari 1983).

When students get admission in a university, they have no idea about studies requirement. Most of them have old patterns of seeking knowledge at the beginning, they apply the same old techniques but after some time they realize that old techniques are no more effective. Gradually they started developing mature study style. Some students, when enter the higher institution, feel free themselves from all the worries of studies which affect their studies negatively. Even they get failed in their tests or exams and there are some other poor study habits which affect the performance of the students. This includes a very common mistake which is made by students, and also most unavoidable from the side of students. When students enter, especially in the universities, they think of themselves free from every duty of studies. When students leave their classes without any plan to read up what has been taught, due to this, their study habits are also affected. They get used to it and lose their positions. If they want to succeed in their life, they should be active in their studies, attend all lectures which the teacher delivers in the class.

 

Study habits are learning tendencies that enable students to work privately. The term study habit can be as the students’ way of study whether systematic, efficient or inefficient. Going by this definition, it literally means that good study habit produces positive academic performance while inefficient study habit leads to academic failure. Study habit are measured directly through reports, examination, assessment and rating. Students’ attitude and study habit towards any subject has been described as a function of their belief about the subject and implicit evaluative responses with those beliefs, all of which has direct relationship with the student academic performance.

 

 

1.2   STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In Nigeria, there are so many factors that influence the ability of students to cultivate effective and efficient study habit towards better academic performance. Such factors that are capable of influencing the academic performance of university students are state of health, motivation, anxiety, their environment, adequacy of infrastructures like textbooks and well equipped libraries.

Nuthana & Yenagi,(2009) have examined the causes of poor academic performance among university undergraduates. Some of these factors identified are intellectual ability, poor study habit, achievement motivation, lack of vocational goals, low self concept, low socio-economic status of the family, poor family structure and so on. However, the researcher is examining the factors affecting study habit and academic performance of undergraduate students.

 

 

1.3   OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The following are the objectives of this study:

1.  To examine the factors affecting study habit and academic performance of undergraduate students

2.  To examine the factors affecting academic performance of undergraduate students.

3.  To determine the relationship between study habit and academic performance of undergraduate students

 

1.4   RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.  What are the factors affecting study habit and academic performance of undergraduate students?

2.  What are the factors affecting academic performance of undergraduate students?

3.  What is the relationship between study habit and academic performance of undergraduate students?

 

1.5   HYPOTHESIS

HO: There is no significant relationship between study habit and academic performance of undergraduate students.

HA: There is significant relationship between study habit and academic performance of undergraduate students.

 

1.6   SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The following are the significance of this study:

1.  The finding from this study will educate the stakeholders in the education sector and the general public on the factors that can influence student’s academic performance with special focus on study habit and factors that can reshape students study habit towards better academic performance.

2.  This research will also serve as a resource base to other scholars and researchers interested in carrying out further research in this field subsequently, if applied will go to an extent to provide new explanation to the topic

 

1.7   SCOPE/LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study on the factors affecting study habit and academic performance of undergraduate students will cover various forms of study habits practiced by undergraduate students and its effect on their academic performance considering factors that can encourage better study habit.

LIMITATION OF STUDY

Financial constraint– Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).

Time constraint– The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.

REFERENCES

Ansari Z.A. (1983) Study Habits and Attitude of Students, National institute of psychology, Islamabad.

Gonzalez, M.C. (1997) Academic Motivation. It’s determining factors and  guidelines for intervention, Navarra. EUNSA.

Sadia. B. (2005) A study of the factors affecting the performance of the students in Government Secondary Schools for girls in Rawalpindi city. M.A.Edu. Thesis, Faculty of Education, International Islamic University, Islamabad.

Nuthana K. & Yenagi, M. (2009) The effective, efficient professor: Teaching, scholarship and service. Allyn & Bacon.

 

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THE ROLE OF PTA IN ADMINISTRATION OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1.    BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Efficient and effective administration of schools should be entirely an internal thing or be left for just the school administration. For a school to be able to do well in every ramification, then useful inputs from ‘external’ sources have to be thoroughly considered and implemented. One of those useful external sources is the parents’ teachers association. Parents’ teachers association is an association comprising of parents/guardians of students or pupils and the administration of the school majorly teachers who meet annually or quarterly to discuss matters on the educational, moral and spirited well-being of the students or pupils of any learning organization, either at the nursery or primary level or at the secondary level. This association is basically made up of two arms, the executive and the general assembly. The general assembly meets at designed times either quarterly or yearly while the executives meet as often as the need arises. The executive arm of this association is made up of duly elected parents or guardians and the school management such as the head teachers, principals and school administrators (kalu 2009).

The PTA has overtime been an organization that has monitored progress being made by the school. For efficient administration of any organization schools inclusive, all hands must be on deck enroute to its actualization.

Overtime, a lot has been said about the operations and functions of the parents’ teachers association. This association has majorly defined roles for every school ranging from the nursery and primary school to the secondary schools. In some schools they are seen majorly as a fund raising group while in some other schools they are seen as one of the highest decision making body of the school. Whichever way one has to look at it, this association one would say may be a major stakeholder in the effective administration of the school.

 

 

Roles of the parents’ teachers association

Ø  To represent the views of parents/guardians of the school

Ø  To promote a positive view of parents via effective collaboration with the Parent Representatives on the Board of Management

Ø  To inform parents of current changes in the school system, if the need arises.

Ø  To network with other Parent Associations through involvement with National Parents Council.

Ø  To establish a forum through which parents and teachers can exchange information and research in relation to education/welfare of children.

Ø  To proffer solutions on better ways to administrate the school.

Ø  To support parents, teachers and students to ensure that all children are treated in accordance with the ethos of the school.

Ø  To support the teaching staff, and to work with them in delivering the school curriculum

Ø  To help raise funds for the school and the Parents Association, in consultation with the Principal and Board of Management

Ø  To keep parents informed about activities planned for the school

Ø  To influence policy development at school level

Ø  To influence policy development at national level once affiliated to the National Parents Council.

1.2.    STATEMENT OF THE GENERAL PROBLEM  

The educational performance of Nigerian students and standard of education in Nigeria today is gradually falling thus leading to this question as to the role of the parents’ teachers association in the administration of schools in Nigeria in improving this malady in the educational sector. There is also a growing concern over the poor performance of students in the just released WASSCE examinations thus leading to this study in examining the role of this association in improving this decline. Does the parents’ teachers association help in improving the general administration of schools in Nigeria? Are their inputs as stakeholders required to improve the declining education sector? All these are the problems that led to this survey.

1.3.    AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of the study is to examine the impact of parents’ teachers association in the administration of schools in Nigeria. Specific objectives of the study are:

1.  To know if the association influences the performance of the teaching staff of the school.

2.  To ascertain if the association influences the performance of their wards or children in school.

3.  To find out if the association influences policy development in schools.

4.  To find out if there is a relationship between the activities of the parents’ teachers association and the development of education in Nigeria.

1.4.     RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In order to examine the influence of the parents’ teachers association in schools across Nigeria, the following questions were asked.

1.  To what extent does the parents’ teachers association influence the overall performance of the teaching staff of schools?

2.   Does the parents’ teachers association influence the academic performance of their wards or children? If the answer is in the affirmative, to what extent has this association influenced the performance of the students.

3.  Is there a relationship between the activities of the parents’ teachers association in schools and the general educational development in Nigeria?

4.  Does this association influence basic policy development in schools in Nigeria?

5.  Are the inputs of the parents’ teachers association required to improve the decline in the education sector?

1.5      RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

Hypothesis 1

H0: Parents’ teachers association does not influence the overall performance of teachers in schools.

H1: Parents’ teachers association influences the overall performance of teachers in schools.

Hypothesis 2

H0: Parents’ teachers association does not influence the overall performance of their wards in schools.

H1: Parents’ teachers association does not influence the overall performance of their wards in schools.

Hypothesis 3

H0: there is no relationship between the activities of the parents’ teachers association and the general educational development in Nigeria.

H1: there is a relationship between the activities of the parents’ teachers association and the general educational development in Nigeria.

1.6      SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

For students to be able to perform optimally in school and for teachers to be able to give their best in schools, then certain inputs from sources have to be thoroughly considered and implemented.  A very viable source is the parents’ teachers association, for a better education sector, one must be able to know the extent of the role of this association in schools and by extension the education sector.  In other to resuscitate the declining education sector, teachers should be encouraged and guided, students progress should be monitored and above all, the administration of schools should well guided and advised on the right moves to make. Thus a major significance of this study is to know the level of input in the schools administration by the parents’ teachers association.

1.7      SCOPE AND  OF THE STUDY

This study is restricted to parents, primary and secondary schools in Uyo local government of Awa-Ibom State. In the realization of the role of the parents’ teachers association in schools across the local government. The study will be focused on parents and teachers of various primary schools in LAGOS state.

 

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS

·        PTA: parents’ teachers association

·        ADMINISTRATION: activities that are done in other to plan organize and run a business, school or other institution.

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