“Margarine” Production Using Oil Blends From Palm Kernel, Coconut And Melon

 

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ABSTRACT

Palm kernel, coconut and melon oils were extracted and refined. Their physical and chemical characteristics were examined. The refined oils were blended to produce three samples of margarine: palm kernel oil margarine (PKO), palm kernel and coconut oils margarine were tested for free fatty acid and Iodine value with the following results 0.27,0.84, 1.68 Free Fatty Acid, 17.77, 20.30, 21.57 Iodine value for PKO, PCO and PCM margarine respectively. These products were assessed organoleptically using 9 – point hedoic scale o both samples and the standard were found to be significantly different at 5% level of probability.
There was however no significant difference in taste and colour at the same level of significance. Production of margarine using these three blends of oils should be encouraged to add to the varieties of margarine in the market.

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Fats and Oils
2.1.2 Importance of Fats and Oils
2.1.3 Fats as Food
2.1.4 Essential Fatty Acids
2.1.5 Classification of Fats and Oils
2.1.6 Composition of Seed Oils
2.1.7 Tropical Oil Seeds
2.2.0 Palm Kernel, Coconut and Melon
2.2.1 Coconut
2.2.2 Melon
2.2.3 General Methods of Extracting Seed Oils
2.2.4 Refining and Processing of Seed Oils
2.2.5 Hydrogenation
2.2.6 Storage of Processed Oil
2.2.7 Rancidity
2.2.8 Functions of Additives Used
2.2.9 Components Contributing Flavour and Colour
2.3.0 Margarine

CHAPTER THREE
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Source of Material
3.2.1 Refining Procedure
3.3 Determination of the Specific Gravity
3.3.1 Determination of Yield
3.3.2 Determination of Moisture Content
3.4 Method of Chemical Analysis on the Oils
3.4.1 Provide Value Determination
3.4.2 Free Fatty Determination
3.4.3 Determination of Iodine Value
3.5.0 Recipe for the Product
3.6.0 Production of Margarine
3.7.0 Methods of Analysis of Margarine
3.8.0 Sensory Evaluation

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Conclusion
4.2 Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendation
References
Appendices
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: Classification of Vegetable Oils.
TABLE 2: Chemical Composition of Palm Kernel Oil
TABLE 3
TABLE 4: Formulation of Samples
TABLE 5: Shows the Physical Analysis of the Oils
TABLE 6: Chemical Analysis of the Oils
TABLE 7: Chemical Analysis of the Margarine Samples
Production
TABLE 8: L.S.D. Sensory Evaluation on the Margarine
Samples.
LIST OF FLOW CHART

FLOW CHART 1: Refining Process of Oil

FLOW CHART 2: Production Chart

FLOW CHART 3: Refining of Crude Oil

FLOW CHART 4: Production of Margarine

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Margarine, a butter substitute made originally from other animal fats, but nowadays exclusively from vegetable oils, like homogenization and pasteurization is a reach innovation. Margarine is made from water in oilemulsion because margarine is oilemulsion. Today it is a manufactured imitation of butter made by mixing a variety of fats that may include whale oil or vegetable oils, hydrogenated to an appropriates degree. Stabilize, an oil soluble dye and a proportion of soured skimmed milk to supply flavour.

Like its model, margarine is about 80% fat, 20% water and solids. It is flavoured, coloured ad fortified with vitamin A and sometimes D to match butters nutritional contribution. Single oil or a blend may be used. During World War 1, coconut oil was favoured, in the thirties, it was cottonseed, and in the fifties, soy. Today, soy and corn oils predominate. The raw oil is pressed from the seeds, purified, hydrogenated, them fortified and coloured, either with a synthetic carotene or with annatto, a pigment extracted from a tropical seed. The water phase is usually reconstituted or skim milk that is cultured with lactic bacteria to produce a stronger flavour although pure diacetyl, the compound most responsible for the flavour of butter, is also used. Emulsifiers such as lecithin help disperse the water phase evenly throughout the oil, salt and preservatives are also commonly added. The mixture of oil and water is them heated, blended, and cooled. The softer tub margarines are made with less hydrogenated, more liquid oils than other types of margarines.

In 1860s French Emperor Louis Napoleon III offered a prize to anyone who could make satisfactory substitutes for buffer, suitable for use by the armed forces and the lower classes.
French chemist Hippolyte Mege-Mouriezi invented a substance he called oleomargarine, which become, in shortened form, the trade name margarine and is now the generic term for a wide range of broadly similar edible oils. It is sometimes shortened to oleoleomargarine which was made by taking clarified beef fat, extracting the liquid portion under pressure, and then allowing it to solidify. When combined with butyrins and water, it made a cheap and more – or – less palatable butter substitute. Sold as margarine or under any of a host of other trade names, butter substitutes soon became big business but too late to help Mege-Mouriez. Although he expanded his initial manufacturing operation from France to the United States in 1873, he had little commercial success. By the end of the decade, however, artificial butters were on sale in both the old World and the new.

Margarine is naturally white or almost white; by forbidding the addition of artificial colouring agents, legislators found that they could keep margarine off kitchen tables. The bans became common place around the world and would endure for almost 100 years. It did not become legal to sell coloured margarine. In Australia, for example, until the 1960s.

In the mean time, margarine manufactures had made changes. Modern margarine can be made from any of a wide variety of animal or vegetable fats, and is often mixed with skim milk, salt and emulsifiers. Liquid fats are transformed into suitable substrates by the chemical process of hydrogenation, which renders them solid at room temperature. Many popular table spreads today are blends of margarine and butter. Something that was long illegal in the United States and Australia and no doubt parts of the world too and are designed to combine and the lower cost and easy – spreading of artificial butter with the taste of the real thing.

Three main types of margarine are common:
Hard, generally uncoloured margarine for cooking or baking, which contains a high proportion of animal fat. “Traditional” margarines for such use as spreading on toast, which contain a relatively high percentage of saturated fats and made from either animal or vegetable oils. Margarines high in mono – poly – unsaturated fats, which are made from safflower, sunflower soybean, cottonseed, or olive oil.

Margarine, particularly polyunsaturated margarine has become a major part of the Western dieted states, for example, in 1930 the average person ate over 8kg of butter a year and just over 1 kg of margarine By the and of the 20th century, an average American ate just under 2kg of butter and bearly 4kg of margarine.
Based on the fact that margarine can be obtained from vegetable fat and animal fat, this study to produce margarine from palm kernel melon $ coconut oils bland id to investigate if the product would be preferred over the sample in the market by the consumers. The odour and taste in the oils would be removed during processing for it not to affect the sample of margarine.
Physical, chemical and sensory evaluation test would be employed to investigate the

 

 

 

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Fungal Infustation On Bakery Product Bread

 

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ABSTRACT

This project work which is all about the fungal infestation of bakery product BREAD, explain the kind or type of fungal organisms that are responsible for the spoilage on contamination of bread. The infestation of fungal organism on bread depends on the kind and number of the agent present and upon the environment about them. this statement makes it clear that micro organism infest foods having suitable environment condition for their microbial activity.

This project work is centered on knowing the fungal micro-organisms that infests bread which emails the isolation and identification of the fungal organisms, the source of cotanmination a known standardized system called hazard analysis critical control point which ensures hygienically produced breads. The material and method email the collection of bread samples from five different shops AT Artisan market, Enugu, the method used is the isolation technoloque and the identification of filamention fungi and yeast by wet mount and fluorescence microscopy. The result obtained were gotten by counting the colonies grown on the culture medium (Nutrient agar) and the mean of duplicate was then calculated, some fungal micro organisms seen viewed unbder the microscope are as follows;

Mucon SpP
Aspergillus flarus
Aspergillus fumigatus
Penicillium Spp
Rhizopus Spp

Fungal Infustation On Bakery Product Bread

 

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Composition of the medium
Table 2 Daily observation of bread at room temperature
TABLE 3 Fungal load of the cultured bread
Table 4 Cultural and morphological characteristics

 

TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
1.2 Aims and objective of study
1.3 Hypothesis
1.4 Statement of problem
1.5 Significance of study
1.6 Limitation of study

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Composition of bread and its requirement
2.2 Sources of contamination
2.3 Infestation of bakery products
2.4 Types of spoilage in bread
2.5 The hazard analysis critical control point
2.6 Degradation and deterioration of bread
2.7 Mycotoxin
2.8 Preservative

CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 Sample collection
3.2 Material used for the preparation of the medium
3.3 Preparation the medium
3.4 Isolation and identification procedure
3.4.1 Isolation method
3.5 Identification of fungi

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Result
4.2 Discussion

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendation
REFERENCES .

Fungal Infustation On Bakery Product Bread

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION.
Food can be contaminated with spoilage on pathogenic organisms ( micro). Infestation of these fungal organisms spoil the product so that it is not fit to eat; it also changes the taste so that the product is not desirable. The concept of food infestation of fungal organisms is based on the consipteration for fiutres of consumption. Infestation is defined as the over presence alone has led to its growth and microbial activity.

Pathogenic organisms however can cause food poisoning. Food poisoning can arise through infatuation of food by organisms (micro) which secrete toxins which B their consumed. The cost of fungal infested bread resulting to spoilage is also great with loss of money due to wastage of the raw materials. Also considering the usefulness of this product in the community with the management of money being spent it has also helped in the sense that since it is regarded as a fast food it is being bought and consumed directly without further preparations done.

Effect of contaminated bread in the society can lead to an epidemic of gastrointestinal disorder where by that particular environment that consumed the contaminate bread become affected there by developing stomach upset. As a result of this a lot of consideration should be given to breads that are sent into the community to be sold and this is done by the standardized system called HACCP ie hazards Analysis critical control point.

This method is now generally considered as a choice for ensuring safety of foods (jay 1996 de Boer and Beumer 1999) hazzard analysis critical control point involves identifying places in the production process where hazzard could occur. i.e. the CCp (critical control point” and putting monitoring procedures in place to prevent these hazards occurring even with this system in place samples still need to be tested for the presence of micro organism.

Detection of most of the micro organisms requires growth of the organism on selective media which can take a number of days from isolation to identification. These method are sensitive and gives qualitative information on the number and nature of the micro organism. Present in a food sample. However, conventional methods require several day to produce result because they rely on the ability of micro organisms to multiply to visible colonies (De Boser and Beumer 1999). Presentation of bread commonly involves the use of propionates and sorbates and sometime henzoates. Preservatives are added to retain on to increase the shelf life by preventing the micro-organism responsible for the contamination of that food. There alter natives to preservatives have been bought also. The chief types of microbial spoilage of bread as a result of fungal infestation will also studied which is moldiness. Rapines is also another type of bread spoilage but unfortunately it wont be studies due to the fact that it is caused by…

Fungal Infustation On Bakery Product Bread

 

 

 

 

 

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Isolation And Performance Evaluation Of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae From On Palm Wine (Elaels Guinneensis) At Different Temperature Of Proofing During Bread Making

 

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TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER ONE

• Introduction 1
  • Palm wine 1
  • Composition of palm wine 2
  • Yeast 3
  • Bread 6
  • Aims and objective 8

CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review                                                              10

2.1     Bread Production                                                               10

2.2     Functions of the Ingredients In Bread Production              12

2.3     Type of bread                                                                    14

2.4     The procedures involved in bread production                    16

2.5     Bread quality                                                                     17

2.6     Palm wine (elaeis quinn eensis)                                         18

2.7     General characteristcs of saccharomyces cerevisiae           20

2.8     Characteristics of bakers yeast                                           22

2.9     Pure culture isolation and cultivation                                 24

CHAPTER THREE

Materials and methods                                                                 25

3.1     Equipments                                                                        26

3.2     Raw materials                                                                    26

3.3     Sources of material                                                            27

34      Preparation of medium                                                      27

3.5     Isolation of yeast species                                                   28

3.6     Characterization and test for viability of yeast                    28

3.7     Production of starter culture                                              29

3.8     Preparation of yeast paste                                                  30

3.9     Bread production                                                               30

3.10   Quality test                                                                        33

CHAPTER FOUR

Results and discussion                                                                 35

4.1     Characteristics of yeast on malt

extract nutrient medium                                                      35

4.2     Identification of yeast isolate                                             35

4.3     Dough leavening ability                                                     37

4. 4 The volume, weight, height and specific

volume of the samples                                                       39

4.5     Sensory evaluation                                                            40

 

CHAPTER FIVE

Conclusion and Recommendation                                                42

5.1     Conclusion                                                                        42

5.2     Recommendations                                                             42

Reference                                                                           43

Appendix 1                                                                        46

 

 

ABSTRACT

Saccharomyces cerevisiae was isolated from the fermenting sap of flaeis guinneensis. The yeast isolate was used in dough proofing at different temperatures. The samples B, C, D, E, and F, (containing the same ingredients) were leavened at 20⁰ c, 25⁰ c, 30⁰ c and 40 c respectively. Similarly, sample A which served as the contol was leavened at 30c. the following proof heights were recorded 3.3cm, 1.9 cm, 23cm, 3.5cm, 3.6cm and 2.5cm respectively for the proofing period, samples D and E compared favourably with the control which has a proof height of 3.3cm. The bread height, weight , volume and the specific volume was recorded sensory evaluation was carried on the samples for taste, appearance, texture flavour and overall acceptability. Turkeys test was in the samples. Result of the sensory evaluation showed that samples D ranked favourably with the control in all quality attributes tested at (D < 0.05). The other samples were different from the control in all the sensory attributed tested for A proofing temperature of 30⁰c using the isolate was recommended for bread making in other to achieve the desired bread quality.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     PALM WINE

Palm wine is a milky alcoholic beverage produced from the inflorescence of palm tree it is the most widely used and cherished natural traditional alcoholic beverage especial in the southern part of Nigeria, and is the juice of the oil paolm ( Elacis guinneensis) and raffia palm ( Rapia hooker) ( Ihekoronye and Ngoddy 1985).

A milky juice containing initially well over 13% sucrose is collected in the calabash which is hung at the base of the incision of the inflorescence of palm tree soon after leaving the tree, yeast spares, especially those of Saccharomyces cerevisias infect the juice and soon start to ferment the fermentable sugar.

Palm wine can be consumed as an alcoholic beverage. It could be allowed to ferment and subsequently distilled into gin it could also be used for the leavening of dough for bread making ( Somiari and Udoh 1993).

The use of palm wine and as a leavening agent for dough is attributed to the presence of a yeast strain contained in the palm sap. This yeast strain is saccharomyces cerevisiaem or baking yeast is called in the bakery industry.

Palm wine when fresh, tastes like ginger bear and can be used as like yeast ( Irvine 1961). Initially, the sap is sweet, dirty brown in colour. The fermentation process results in the sap becoming milky white in appearance. This is due to the presence of large number of fermenting bacteria and yeast.

Fermentation occurs between 36 – 38 hr period during which PH of sap falls from 7.0 –7.2 to < 4. (Jay 1986).

 

1.2     COMPOSITION OF PALM WINE

Palm wine has the average alcoholic content of 2.00 percent to 4. 69 percent. The sugary syrup, which is dirty brown in colour contains about 10 – 12 % sugar mainly sucrose.

Studies made by faparusi et al1986 found the following genera of bacteria to be the most predominant in finished produced Lactobacillus, Micrococcus, Leuconostoc, Streptococcus and Acetobacter. The predominate yeast found are Saccharomyces and Candida spp with the former being the more common.

 

1.3     YEAST (saccharomyces cerevisiae)

Yeast is a unicellular micro-organism and fungus type. It makes possible many of the products made by bakers. This is because various types of bread and certain other bakery precuts are leavened (raised) by yeast. Many of them produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as waste products of their metabolism. They are therefore useful in the food industry for fermentation and aeration.

Yeast usually used in the temperate region for baking are carefully selected strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This is a simple chlorophyll – free plant which feeds on sugar in the batter or dough to produce carbon dioxide (Kotshever 1980). By enzyme action, it converts fermentable sugars and some of the starch present in the dough into carbon-dioxide gas and alcohol and provides desirable controlled fermentation (Sultan 1982).

The discovery of the use of yeast to leaven bread centuries ago lead to the growth of bakery industry. Bakers used brewers yeast till about 80 –1000 years ago due to its performance in the bakery which was low and variable. The isolation of a special yeast strain which possessed the desired characteristic needed, brought about revolutionary changes in the bakery industry. This strain is known as saccharomyces cerevisiae or otherwise “ bakers” yeast in the form of cakes of compressed fresh yeast cell, with moisture content of about 70%.

 

NUTRITION AND GENERATION

Since the yeast cell is a living organism, it has numerous nutritional needs and it is only if these are met that it will grow vigorously and produce a large quantity of carbon dioxide. Food and moisture are needed for this growth.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae differs from other yeast species. It has more aerobic growth habit, maximum yielding capability stability during storage. It is usually derived from special selection of fast growing (short generation time) naturally occurring yeast strains ( Oyawoye and Bassey 1997) .

The plant grow best at the temkperature between 80 – 90⁰ cooler temperatures retards their growth and a temperature as high as 111⁰ F kills the plant within an hour 140⁰ F destroy them within 5 minutes.

 

IMPORTANCE OF BAKERS YEAST

This principle involved in dough leavening is based on the utilization of the carbohydrate by the ‘bakers’ yeas to give out carbon dioxide entrapped in the dough. As the yeast multiply in the dough, fermenting at room temperature. More and more carbon-dioxide is produced and the dough expanse because of the pressure of gas. This yeast activity is destroyed during baking at the temperature of 140⁰ F.

Bakers yeast is useful chiefly in three different ways.

1. TESTURE FORMATION: They produce carbon dioxides gas, which leavens or raises the dough, giving the bread the desired loose porous texture.

INCREASE OF DOUGH VOLUME: The use of bakers yest as a leavening agent help to achieve great great increase in volume and…

 

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Comparative Analysis Of The Ash And Moisture Content Of Riped And Unriped Plantain (Musa Spp)

 

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TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION 1
AIMS/OBJECTIVES 2
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 2
LIMITATION OF STUDY 3

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW 4
HISTORY OF PLANTAIN 6
PRODUCTION TREAD 7
PLANTAIN HABITAT 8
PLANTAIN CULTIVATION 8
PLANTAIN MEDICINAL PROPERTIES
AND HERBAL USE 9
NUTRITIONAL VALUES AND GENERAL
USE OF PLANTAIN 12

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY 16

CHAPTER IV
RESULT ANALYSIS 18

CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION 19
RECOMMENDATION 21
CONCLUSION 22

REFERENCES 23

 

 

ABSTRACT

Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) are edible fruits that grow in tropics and sub-tropics regions of Africa. There are many varieties of plantain, they include Musa acminicta, red banana, Musa balbisiana apple bananas and Cavendish banana. But this write up centered on ripe plantain and unriped plantain. As plantain is consumed by almost everybody round the regions of the world. Plantaion which is cultivated around many countries of the world grows best in a warm and well manured areas of the tropics. It has been discovered that most of the people prefere the unripe plantain to the ripe one. Therefore, our research has been able to find out why it was so. The practicals performed indicated that unlike the unripe plantain, the ripe plantain has more moisture content than the unriped plantain this has been found to be responsible for the easy spoilage of the ripe plantains as this moisture content attracts bacteria easily than the unripe. More effort was also made to analyse the ash content of both the ripe and unripe plantain. Thus the result of the practical showed that the ash content of the unriped plantain is relatively lower than that of the riped plantain.

 

 

CHAPTER I

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Plantain belongs to the musacace family and is cultivated tin many tropical and some tropical countries of the world. It ranks third after yams and cassava for sustainability in Nigeria. (Akomolafe and Abirisade 2007) Plantain (musa paradiasiaca) is a rhizomatous perennial crop used as a source of starchy staple for millions of people in Nigeria (Adeniji et al, 20060). Mature plantain pulp is very rich in iron, potassium, vitamin A, and ascorbic acid but low in protein. (Degboyega, 20060 The proximate functional characteristics and properties of the starch of ripe and unripe plantains have been evaluated (Izunfuo and Omuaru, 2006) Unriped plantain meal is usually consumed by Nigerian diabetics to reduce postprandial glucose level. This is because the propensity of individuals to develop diabetics and obesity is due to the increased consumption of carbohydrate rich foods with a high glycemic index. The glycemic index of some Nigeria food have been determined. This study aimed at determining the glycemic index load and glycemic responds of processed unripe plantain in non diabetic healthy volunteers.

 

OBJECTIVES
The objective of analyzing the fruit plantain is to determine the moisture and ash content of ripe and the unripe plantain.

 

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS
It has been observed that most people prefer unriped plantain to riped one. This may be because of the fact that riped plantain has more moisture content that the unriped ones, which

 

 

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Continue reading Comparative Analysis Of The Ash And Moisture Content Of Riped And Unriped Plantain (Musa Spp) →

The Effects Of Different Processing Techniques On The Organoleptic Quality Of Soymilk Processing And Storage

 

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ABSTRACT

Soymilk was processed from soymilk (Glycine Max) seed using that different processing techniques:
A Hot extraction method
B. Cold extraction method
C. Soaking before hot extraction method.
The soymilk samples were subjected to sensory evaluation using 9 point hedonic scale and proximate analysis.
Result obtained showed that sample A was significantly different (P < 0.05) between sample B had a more acceptable colour (P < 0.05) than samples A and C this was no significant difference between sample A and C in terms of colour.
The general acceptability of the sample showed that all the samples were acceptable.

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 History of Soybeans
1.2 Uses of Soybeans
1.3 Composition of Soybeans
1.4 Nutritional Quality of Soybeans
1.5 Antinutritional Factors
1.6 Trypsin Inhibitor
1.7 Haemagluttins
1.8 Soybeans Saponings
1.9 Protein Quality of Soubeans
1.10 Aims and Objectives

CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
2.1 Milk from Soybeans
2.2 Nutritional Value of Soybeans
2.3 Essential Amino Acid Content of Soybeans
2.4 Undesirable Components of Soybeans
2.4.1 Trypsin Inhibitor
2.4.2 Clrease
2.4.3 Haemagluttuis
2.4.4 Gioterogens
2.4.5 Phytic acid
2.4.6 Bitter and Beeany Flavour
2.4.7 Flatus
2.4.8 Soymilk Flavour
2.4.9 Soymilk and Lipoxidase Activity
2.6.1 Nutritional Aspect of Soymilk
2.6.2 Proteins
2.6.3 Vitamins and Minerals
2.6.4 Fats

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Materials
3.2 Methods I Hot Extraction Method
3.3 Method II Cold Extraction Method
3.4 Method III Soaking Before Hot Extraction Method
3.5 Method of Analysis

CHAPTER FOUR
Result and Discussion
4.1 Effect of Soaking Time on the Organoptic Qualities of Soymilk
4.2 Effect of Soaking Time on the Protein Recovery and Total Solids
4.3 Effect of Blanching Time on the Organoleptic Qualities of Soymilk
4.4 Effect of Blanching Time on Protein Recovery and Total Solids

CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and Recommendation
Conclusion
Recommendation
REFERENCES

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

His of Soymilk: Soybeans belongs to the family leguminous, subfamily papiliondase and the genus Glycine Max. (Ricker and Morse, 1984), other normendatures which have been used include phaseolus Max, Soja Max Piper and Soja hispide moech.
It is not known when this remarkable legume, soybean was first cultivated in China.

However as the first legume of which a written record was made. This was in the books of the Emperor Shen hung, dated 1800BC which describes the five principal and sacred crops of China, rice, bean, wheat barely and millet, lafter in his milliohm there were chinses writing, giving expert advice on growing soybean which was cultivated more extensively in North than in Southern China, it reached Hapan and other countries in East Asia at an early date.
Soybean contain about 46% protein and 18% fat, characteristics which have influenced it’s history: the ancient Chinese evolved methods of making from it’s preparations with high protein content for example, Curd and Shoyu, Shoyu is a dark brown liquid made by fermentation of a combination of soybeans and cereals (F.A.O. 1970). The Chinese also ate soybeans as a vegetable after it ahs sprouted.

The soybean was first heard of in Europe in 1712 through the German Botanist Egelbant Kalmpfer who had visited Japan. In the 18th century, it was grown in some European botanical gardens (F.A.O, 1970), it is first appearance in the United States in 1804, when Commander Perry brought home two varieties from Japan (F.A.O, 1970).

What was called the second stage in the history of soybeans did not begin until the first decade of the present century, when it become an important export from East – Asia at first mainly to Europe and alter to the importing countries was as a source of oil for soap making and other purposes and for the manufacture of livestock feed.
Then the third stage began in the early nineteen thirties, it is silent feature has been the large stage cultivation of the soybean in the United States, combined with the application of Modern Technology which enable it to be put to a variety of uses both as food and folder and as raw materials for manufacturing processes, while soybean has to a considerable extent becomes an industrial crop in the United States, it continues to be grown in East Asia as a food crop processed for consumption by time honoured methods. (FAO, 1970).

The fourth stage began during the first decade of the 20th century A.D. at the period in which this crop was first introduced of soybeans in Nigeria shows that middle belt of the country to be the best producer of soybean production (Ezedinmma, 1964). In Nigeria, nearly all of the soybean production estimated at 30,000 tons is used for human food. A response to increase in demand for soybean for soybean as a source of protein and vegetable oil, national programme in Nigeria have explained their research on the crop. Since 1987 (IITA; Annual Report 1985) currently more feather have been added to the number of products that can be obtained from soybeans in Nigeria, such products like soymilk as it had been recently demonstrated at the food investigation centuries in Enugu.
Soymilk in the traditional sense is simply an aqueous extract of whole soybean, A detailed description of the technique used for the preparation of the soymilk as well as its composition will be found in chapter 3.

Soymilk according to the nutritionist a possible substitute for cow or human milk particularly in the feeding of infant who are allegic to animal milk or where cows milk may be found to be two expensive or unavailable. Miller, (1962) soybean or vegetable milk or flu-changin chinse is reported to have been developed and used in china before the Christian era (paker and Morse 1943) by the philosopher who was credited with the first step in the processing of tofu and yuba. Then, the traditional milk is made by soaking the bean in water overnight, wet milling the bean, heating the wet mash to improve flavour and nutritional value and filtration. The milk produce is sold to the public in streets and canteens in china in 1984.

In recent years large scale production ha evolved along with commercial marketing of soymilk in Hongkong, Taiwan, Thailand, South Korea, Sinapere, Malaysiaa and not the United States (Babara, 1984).

Uses of Soybeans
Soybeans are a native crop of Eastern Asia where they have `served as an important part of the diet for centuries. The Japanese for example obtain 12 – 13% of their dietary protein from soybean product, for many of their traditional soy foods, the oriental people soak soybeans in water and then grind or cook them.
Hot water extraction of ground beans yields soybean milk which is consumed as such or is treated with calcium salts to precipitate the protein plus oil in the form of bean curd or tofu, fermentation of cooked soybeans yield products including soy sauce, misso, notto and tempheh.

Except for soy sauce, one of the traditional oriental foods is consumed in significant amounts in this country. Soybeans are a relative new corner to the American scene. They have only been gown in quantity since the late 1920’s when soybean processing become an established industry, the two major products were oil and defaulted meals.

In the mid – 1`930’s large portion of the oil began to be used for foods such as shortening, margarine, cooking oil mayonnaise and salad dressing, because of its high protein content and good nutritional value, when properly processed, the meal was used primarily for animal feeds.

Soybeans have expanded in the last 30 year from a minor crop to a major cash crops. Indeed in value to the farmer soybeans now rank second to corn and above wheat, potatoes, oats, cotton and a variety of other crops better known to the consumers, only within the last ten years however, have every many edible products. Containing soybean derivatives been directly associated with their source. In shortening their presence was “hidden” by statements similar to the followings. ‘A blend of hydrogenated vegetable oils or in salad dressing, merely “vegetable oil or a blend of vegetable oil”. Today a long list of foods containing soybean derived product can be prepared by careful reading of the labels in the supermarket, yet most of these are even not specifically identified as soybean. Product from corn, wheat, oats and many other commodities are so labeled for example corn flakes, wheat, garn, oatmeal, but not soybean. There are several reasons for this an enmity, soybean have a short history of sue in the U.S.A. the flavour and texture of soybean products are comparatively strange to people outside the orient.

Although the Chinese and Japanese have covered soybeans into a variety of products most of these foods have little physical or flavour identity with the original bean. Some people agree that green soybean are a delicious dish when properly harvested and cooked but their sale and the sale and the ale of mature beans for baking are extremely small. Soybean products have problems related to their flavour and flavour stability to their ruction in foods and to their physiological effects. Despite these problems soybean oils have become a major material in our food industry. Soybean now supply more than half of the total visible fits and oils consumed in the U.S.A
Soybean composition (PREXIMATE), commercial soybean constitute and 2% hypocotyls and phumule. Proximate composition for whole beans and fractions are given in

Table 1
TABLE 1: PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF SOYBEANS AND SEED PARTS
Fraction Protein (Nx 6.25) Fat % Carbohydrate % Ash %
Whole bean 40 21 34 4.9
Cotyledon 43 23 29 5.0
Hall 8.8 1 86 4.3
Hypocotyls 41 11 43 4.4

The constituents of major interest oil and protein make-up about 60% of the bean, but about one third consist of carbohydrates including polysaccharides, stachyose (3.8%), raffinese 1.1% phosphatides, sterols, ash and other minor constituents are also depend on variety, soil fertility and weather conditions.

NUTRIENTIONAL PROPERTIES OF SOYBEAN
Over 50 years ago Osborne and Mendel (1980) found that rates grew poorly when feed with raw soybean meal and that dry head did not improve the nutritional value of the meal.
Rates grew normally, however when the meal was cooked on a steam for 3hrs. In the past 50yrs a vast literature was developed on the nutritive properties of soybean protein, but moist heat is still used to improve the nutritional quality of soybean protein product for foods and feeds.
The literature on this subject is often confusing and contradictory ; two recent reviews gives concise summaries of pertinent work for the last 30yrs. Alleged antinutritional factors and protein quality therefore are discussed only briefly.

ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORS
Since moist heat readily inactivates the anti-growth factors raw soybean meal, many workers believe that the factors are proteininhibitors and hemagluthins, non protein components such as sapynins have b suggested as anti-nutritional factors but recent work does not support this view.

TRYPSIN INHIBITORS
More than five trysin inhibitors are reported for soybeans but only two-the kenitz and the Bowman Birk inhibitors have been purified and studied in details Kaw soybean meal contains 1.4% kunity inhibitor and 0.6^ Bowman-Birk inhibitor.
Although both inhibitors are active against boline trypsin the kunity inhibitor has any how activity the esterase activity of human trypsin. The activity of human trypsin however is inhibited to a significant extent by kunity inhibition when case is sued as a substrate to measure proteolytic activity. It is not known whether ingestion of the inhibiters affects the presence in humans.

From the practical standpoint, Trypsin inhibitors do not appear to be a serious problem in feeds and food since they are largely inactivated by moist heat. Condition of heating time, temperature, moisture content and particle size influence the rate and extent of trypsin inhibitors inactivation for example, atmospheric steaming (1000C) inactivates more than 95% of the trypsin inhibitor activity of raw, defatted soybean flakes in 15mins. Protein efficiency shows an accompanying increase in this same time and flakes of 19% moisture gave a higher protein efficiency ratio than flakes of 5% moisture. In contrast, steaming whole soybeans chips, or cotyledons for 20mins only partially inactivated trypsin inhibitors apparently because of the large particle size. Atmospheric steaming inactivates most of the trypsin inhibitor in whole soybeans in 15mins. In initial moisture content is 20%. If the beans are soaked in water overnight 60% moisture 25mins. In boiling water sufficient to inactivate the inhibitors. Small but measurable trypsin inhibitors activity can often be deflected after heating the known stability of Bowman-kirk inhibitor suggested that the residual inhibitor may be of this types. Measurements of residual chymotrypsin inhibitor activity would clarify this point because the Bowman-kirk inhibitor is a strong inhibitor of chymotrtpsin.

At recent study reports trypsin inhibitor activity commercial protein isolate but no inhibitor was detected in canned frankfurters containing 1.5% isolate. The heat treatment during canning inactivated the residual inhibitor.

Many of the conclusion drawn from studies on kunity inhibitor must be viewed with some reservations because of the heterogeneity of certain commercial preparation even when crystallized five times. The possibility that a protein impurities or a tightly bound non-protein impurity is responsible for some of the biological properties of the inhibitor has received slight consideration until recently.

Hemagglatinins –Soybean contain at least four proteins capable of causing clumping of red blood cells of rabbits and rates in invitrotests. These proteins are designated haemagluttinins; these proteins are in many legumes. Defected soy flour contains about 3% lemaglutinins. The major hemagluttinin in soybeans has been insolated and characterized. It is a glycoprotein containing 4.5% mannose and 1% glucesanine and has a molecular weight of 110,00 and appear to contain two polypeptide chains.

The ability of hemaggluttinins to cause clumping of red blood cells in a test tube serves as a useful assay procedure but there is no evidence that agglutination of red cells occurs when hemagluttinins are ingested. Hemagglutinins is readily inactivated by pepsin; thus it probably does not service passage through the stomach.

Furthermore, undigested hemagglutinin would have to be absorbed from the intestine to come into contact with red blood cells an occurrence which seems unliky because of the high molecular weight of the hemagglutinin.
Soybean hemagglutinins are readily inactivated when maximum growth response is obtain. Hemagglutinins this ;present no known problems in foods of preparation includes proper heating of the soy ingredient at some step of processing.

Soybean saponings – saponins are complex glycosides of triterpenoid alcohols and occur in soybeans to the extent of 0.5% and because of their polarity, the saponins are insoluble in hexane and remain in defatted meal; defatted meal contains 0.6^ saponins. Although antinutritional properties have been ascribed to soybean saponins, recent studies show t hem to be harmless when ingested by chicks rates and nice aft 0.5 to 3% of the diet.

At the highest level the saponins content was about three fold higher than in a 50% soybean meal supplemented diet. Neither saponings nor sapogenine were found in blood of rates, mice or chicks kept in diet containing 20% soybean seed, thus the saponins are not absorbed thy remain intact until they leave the enzymes in the colon. The saponin inhibit various enzymes including cholinesterase and chymotrypsin but inhibition is not specific. Soyprotein and other dietary protein will also bind saponins. Approximately 0.4% saponins were obtained from a laboratory preparation of soyprotein isolate when isolates where ehated in dilate and solutions crystalline bit apparently modified. Saponins were obtained. The effect of interaction of the saponins with soy protein is still unknown, the saponins are an extremely complex mixture and only limited separations have been obtained to date.
Protein quality of soybean.

Until the 1960’s information on the nutritive value of soybean protein was largely limited to defatted flakes, meals and flours. Moreover most of the studied were concerned with use of soybean means as an animals feed. Since commercial introduction of concentrates and isolates in 1959 and their increasing use in foods, these fractions have received considerably more attention studies with human, however, are still limited. The quality of soy protein depends on several factors:-
a) Amino acids composition
b) Presence of anti-nutritional factors
c) Digestibility
d) Overall composition of the diet
e) Nutrient requirement of the species involves. Item a, b, and c are of primary importance in considering the various soy protein forms as protein sources.

In the preparation of isolates for example fractionation occurs; this results in a change in amino acid composition as well as in removal of the antinutritional factors occurring in the whey, items of and e are of greater importance when a specific food is being considered i.e. an infant food dietary item or a soack food nutritional requirements for an infant differ greatly from the needs of an adult who may be trying too loose weight.

 

 

 

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