PRESS FREEDOM IN NIGERIA: A STUDY OF GOVERNMENT AND RELATIONS UNDER IBRAHIM BABANGIDA REGIME

ABSTRACT

 

The study  on “press freedom in Nigeria” was a historical event of the past military directorship from 1985-1993 under Ibrahim Babangida regime.

This work used survey method and the purpose of this study is to find out it there was a press freedom under IBB’s regime or not. It also carried at  knowing the extent by which press freedom was curtailed or favoured during IBB’s regime.

This work found out that IBB’s regime intact killed press freedom to its highest level. Journalists were jailed, detained while newspapers organizations were closed.

Decrees were unlawfully promulgated to he detrainment of the journalists and other media practitioners.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

• Statement of problem
• Objective of the study
• Research questions
• Significant of the study
• Scope of the study
• Limitation of the study
• Definition of terms

CHAPTER TWO

• REVIEW OF LITERATURE
  • Sources of review
  • The review
  • Press freedom
  • Conditions and actions that promote and bridge press freedom
  • Press freedom in Nigeria.
  • Theoretical background

 

CHAPTER THREE

• Research methodology
• Research method
• Research sample
• Measuring instrument
• Data collection
• Method of data analysis
• Expected result

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0     Data analysis and result

• Analysis of demographic
• Result
• Discussion
• Prior and subsequent censorship

 

CHAPTER FIVE

• Findings, conclusion and recommendation
• Conclusion and recommendation

Reference

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

INTRODUCTION

In independent society a major test of a nation’s freedom is the amount of liberty its people have in speaking writing ns publishing, indeed, one can say that life of a nation depends on the extent of freedom of speech and press that the people enjoy. One can also say that extent by which a nation enjoys this freedom depends on the relationship between the government and the press.

As a result of importance of this right the countries of the world have emerged through the limited nations organization (UNO) in a bid to protect this right s other. These countries signed the universal declaration of human rights in 1945.

Article 18 of this universal human rights established that “ every one has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (worship).

Article 19 of the same declaration also asserts that every one has the right to freedom of opinion and expression, this right includes freedom to hold opinion without interference and to seek receive, impact information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

The guarantee of freedom of the press in the universal declaration of human rights is the right to freedom of expression which includes freedom of speech and if the press.

In compliance with the declaration, many countries of the world have in various degrees provided in their people constitution and opportunity for their people to express themselves within the limits of law.

However, although almost al nations of the world have subscribed to thee universal ideas and replicate them in their constitutions, the ideas  have remain in effect general principles as their interpretation and implementation have always been, subject to the political philosophy of the state applying them, the level of political freedom in such a state, the states history as manifest in some of its economic system and general societal influences.

In spite of differences in interpretation and implementation, certain patterns seems to have emerged. Due to the librarians of democratic societies the rights of citizens to take precedence over those of the state in such societies and whatever right are enjoyed by the states are meant fro larger fulfillment and protection of he right of the citizens. In democratic societies, freedom of the press is usually paramount and will protected.

This is the difference from what brains in totalitarian and authoritarian societies where the emphasis respectively is largely on the welfare of the state and of the cities.

Therefore in authoritarians and totalitarian societies, freedom of the pres or of expression isles protected when compared with that of democratic societies.

Nigeria as member of the entitled nations organization (UNO) has UNO’s declaration of human right in-cooperated into constitution from independence until the present day.

In Nigeria 1963 republican constitution provided that “everyone shall be entitled to freedom of expression including freedom to hold opinion and receive and impart ideas introduction without interference.

The 1979 constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria, also contains in its provision son freedom of expression section 36.

1. Provides that “every person shall be entitled to freedom of expression — section 36
2. Further provided that “every person are entitled to own, established and operates any medium for the dissemination of introduction, ideas and opinions —— 5”

However, the Nigeria constitution did not grant any person or body to operates a television wireless broadcasting stations apart fom these especially authorized by the president or the state and federal government. when compared with at of the united state of America (USA0 however, this is a limit to press freedom in Nigeria.

As in the united nations declaration of human rights it is the freedom town establish and operates any information that serves as a guaratee of press freedom in Nigeria.

However, the implication of the provision on press freedom in the Nigeria constitution have varies depending on the administration that is in power some  administration has greater respect for freedom than others.

From 1960 to 1993 Nigeria had series of civilian and military administration with varying attitudes to press freedom before the regime of Sam Abacha cam to power

It is behaviour of the Babangida administration which came to power in 1985 as regards to freedom of the press that forms the subject of this study.

 

• STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

This study aimed paramount at examining press freedom under General Ibrahim Babangida regime in Nigeria. The study also extended its horizons on the military directorship on the image portrays internationally in terms for restrictions of press operations in external and internal point of view.

Since 1985 to 1993 the press freedom has emerged with much problems such as the following.

1. Detention of the press members
2. Government control over citizens expressions
3. Totters and willing of the journalists by the military regime
4. Embargo on establishment of individual media house
5. Confiscations of daily and periodic publications.

The press freedom from 1995- 1993 has its mark of identification and irrespective of the  irrespirable remarks on the populace of the regime. It will go along way in rephrasing the major actions against maltreatment to journalists profession during the regime of Ibrahim Babangida. The study will ensure the infringement and inefficiency of Ibrahim Babangida during his rulership as been undemocratic to the press.

The  infringement of the press freedom under Babangida regime became a channel of its own in comparative to other military regime and heads of states order than tyranism to the administration and also to the citizens of Nigeria.

 

• OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

There is this view hold by some political personalities,. They strongly believe that the administration of Ibrahim Babagida is unjustiable to other  military regime which has  taken place here in Nigeria before the 1985 over-thrown by Babangida. The experience gotten from dictatorship was sequentially syndromenied on Babangida regime.

The objective of the study incredibly foster adventure to democratically elected government by MKO Abiola and other  to actualize the lost of the press freedom in Nigeria.

In 1993 the upsurge of the Babangida administration agonist press freedom tactically cursed June 12 election annulment in which press liberty was regime to both citizens and press operations in Nigeria.

 

• RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The stud will answer the following questions.

1. What degree of freedom did the media have under the Babangida regime?
2. How did Babangida administration guarantee or curtail freedom of the press?
3. Did Nigerians experience greater press freedom under the Babangida administration of less?
4. What was the performance for the Babangida regime in guarantying press freedom visa-vis the 1979 constitution?
5. Do Nigerians collectively feel cheated when press freedom was trampled upon?
6. How many citizens enjoyed private media ownership during the era?
7. Where there freedom of information orientation to the press and citizens?
8. What was the negative stigma left on the infringement of the press?

 

• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study has been lay in the t\fact that there has been frequent claims that press freedom was on its lowest during the Babangida regime from 1985- 1993. The study will examine press freedom under the Babangida  administration to the variety of these claims. The study is also significant in that  it will ascertain whether there was more press freedom under the Babangida regime or less.

This became important because it would enable us to find out whether Babangida administration is according to the ascertain and opinion of the masses,. This study would help us to confirm or disconfirm that Babangida regime is as ugly as the mind of the both press and citizens on the freedom of the press.

The press freedom on the claim of the media practitioners is, may be seen the only rights that eh journalists and information organization have , this significant study will be highlighted on the both press freedom and practitioners of the media during Babangida regime. But here in this study precisely it is specifically rely in the nature of 1985- 1993 directorship events.

 

• SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study will be mainly examine press freedom under the Babangida regime from 1985-93. The study will equally include the major action taken for or against the freedom of the press by the administration. It will find out if the Babangida administration acted in line with the 1979 Nigerian constitution in its dealings with the press or not.

 

• LIMITATIONS:

This research, no doubt encountered one or two setback in its effort to know the extent of press freedom in Nigeria under the leadership of president Ibrahim Babangida.

The first limitation is that I found it very difficult to get facts that would have helped us to bring this work together.

Fiancé was another limitation  encountered. I did  not have enough money to transport my self to various places, where to would have sourced vital and reide infractions in order to draw the ideas close into this study, money  to transport my self to various places, where I would have sourced virtual and ride information in order to draw the ideas close into this study. Money also restricted me from setting some materials from intents and also rock ticket for more investigations and research on this study.

 

• DEFINITION OF TERMS

CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION

The terms used by the researcher have both their conceptual and operational meanings. The terms are: Press freedom.

Conceptually, according to the oxford advanced learners dictionary

1. Press: news papers, magazines, the news sections of radio and television and the journalists who work for them.
2. Freedom: the state of not being a prisoner or a slave the power or right or right t act, speak etc as one wants without any one stopping one.

Operationally:

1. Press: this involves both press professionally media practitioners and all the equipments used in publications and broad casting
2. Freedom: it means the right given to the media parishioners and journalists to operate and control the affairs of

The practicing filed of journalism without the interruptions or stopping of the operations of the publications and opinion and expression as a right  of he press.

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PRESS FREEDOM IN NIGERIA

 AN EVALUATIVE STUDY OF THE SITUATION FROM 1993 TO DATE

ABSTRACT

This project is an appraisal of press freedom in Nigeria from 1993 – date. In that case, it is going to involve the regimes of various presidents as follows; from 1^st January, 1993 to 27, 1993 to November 17, 1993, that of Chief Ernest Shonekan, November 17, 1993 to June 8 1998 then Sani Abacha who died in office, June 9, 1998 to May 29, 1999, General Abdulsalam Abubakar, and Chief Olusegun Obasanjo who observed his first tenure from May 29, 1999 to May 29, 2003, as he wabbled his way into a second tenure from May 29, 2003 to date. The aim is to provide realistic knowledge of the degree of freedom granted to the press during the period under review.

The research would start from a theoretical point and would later delve into the practical event i.e incidents or experiences of both the media organization and their workers (journalists).

Chapter  one would introduce the subject providing a bird’s eye view of government’s press relationship whether military or civilian. This would lead to the second “segment” which will deal with theoretical framework, significance of the study and literature review of works already done on military and civilian government relationship with the press in Nigeria.

Chapter two would review the various legal restrictions against the press in t he military regime along side the amount of freedom offered them by the civilian regime under study.

Chapter three would be dealing with the diary of conflicts between the press and the regimes under study and the findings there in.

CHAPTER ONE

• Introduction 1
• History of press freedom 7
• Statement of research problem 9
• Objective of the study 10
• Significance of the study                         11
• Research hypothesis 12
• Conceptual and operational definitions 13
• Assumption 15
• Limitation of the study 15
• Notes and references 16

CHAPTER TWO

• Sources of literature 17
• The review 17
• Summary of literature review 81

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY                                               86

• Research 86
• Research sample 86
• Measuring instrument 88
• Data collection 89
• Data analysis 90
• Expected results 90

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

• Data analysis 92

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

• Conclusion 112
• Recommendations for further study 112

Bibliography                                                       114

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Modern  societies are governed by laws or constitutions, normative conventions and sanctions. The resultant effect being the maintenance of law and order to enhance socio-economic and political stability which breads congenial environment for development. The government is the sole custodian of law and order within the state and also sees to its enforcement for the welfare  of the people. The citizens deal with any government through different means or channels of communication. In Liberal democratic societies, the parliament, the political parties, electioneering campaigns, constituency visits, the press, the representatives of the people etc. Would suffice as the various channels of communication. In a monarchy, military and authoritarian regimes the channel narrows down, and in most cases leave the press as the only substantial  means of communication or link between the government and citizens.

But then, necessary as her role is, most governments have not actually  found the press as healthy  partners in progress. In such countries, the government with its monopoly of the instrument of power, asserts its authority over all other s institutions within the political system including the press.

Of course, such fundamental or basic freedoms like individual rights of movements, association and interpersonal exchange  of ideas and opinions are usually guaranteed and embodied in may systems. Be that as it may, the actual or real freedom sought by the press transcends such rudimentary kind of freedom. The role of the press is that of institutional watch dog i.e to hold the government accountable to the people, hence   the clamoring call by pressmen for more freedom so as to perform this role effectively.

It is a standing fact that the press acts as an interlink between the government and the governed. It actually exposes the programes and policies of the former to the later and as a result creates an enabling environment for politics. Moreso, it is apparent that in the discharge of its enormous responsibility, the press transforms itself into an institution as opposed to the transient position of the editor or the reporter. The reporter and the editor are only agents rather than the press itself. Owing to the sensitivity of their  responsibility to the society, pressmen and journalists demand some kind of constitutional shield laws to protect them against hazards in the performance of their duties. That is the conceptual genealogy of the age – old struggle  for freedom of the press. In other words, the right to gather news and information freely without interference for freedom to print and circulate same.

This freedom of the press. In other words, the right to gather news and information freely without interference and freedom to print and circulate same.

This freedom has perpetually been resented by the governments all over the world. The history of press development in the world over is synomuous with legal restrictions and subtle governmental pressures to control media contents. The difference is that the degree of such controls and its method varies from system to system.

The press is mostly embattled and greately suppressed in military and authoritarian regimes, military men and dictators are rigidly trained to have their orders obeyed irrespective of the moral implications. As a result of this, the military are not supposed to deal with civilians since their training does not allow for that. Rather, they are supposed to deal with their fellow military men especially in times of war. For instance, the press thrives in exposing government secrets and corruptions in official quarters while governments are jealous in guarding these issues and detests such actions. Based on this, various governments have enacted the official secrets Acts which the press regard as undue restrictions to its duties. This functional incompatibility is the cause of the conflicts between secrecy in the conduct  of its affairs, and the duty of the press to inform the people about government actions remains the pivot or the centre point of the conflict, discard and antagonism.

Apparently, the nagging question that lies into the picture is where to draw the line between what the press should publish freely and is actionable.

In Nigeria, and many developing countries, the problem between the press and government is a fact that has come to stay. And there is the assumption that restrictive laws against  the press exist more in military regimes than in civilian administrations. The relevance of comparisms like this rates  from the fact that the phenomenon of military intervention in third would politics  has become a fashionable design in common phenomenon. According to Alhaji Lateef Jakande, former civilian Governor of Lagos State and also former minister of works in Abacha’s rule,

“The press under a military regime is akin to being in

a state of emergency or war, hence, the press

should co-operate with the regime accepted by the

society  by deliberately restraining its freedom of

action in two vital areas of defense and security”

It is apparent from Jakande’s writing that the press in a military regime would only try to survive by keeping  within limits  rather than fighting for its due rights and privileges military intervention always go with the suspension of constitutions and the scrambling of the legislatures. These are often  substituted with decrees. Commenting on this situation Dokun Bojawaide, a notable commentor in national issues said;

“With the institution and democratically

elected representatives gone, it was

another time for the people to look

up to the press to fill the vacuum

created by these representatives and

play the role of people’s watchdoy”

However, according to Dr. Patrick Dele Cole, former presidential aspirant in the then social Democractic Party (SDP) during the aborted third republic, the military and the press are the two institutions in our national life that are apparently in irreconcilable conflict both in terms of the way they perceive their role and in their mode of operations.

 

HISTORY OF PRESS FREEDOM

Rulers and church leaders restricted the writing and distribution of certain materials even before there was press. In those days when everything was written by hand, books considered offensive were banned or burnt. Since the AD 400s, the Roman Catholic Church had restricted materials that it considered contrary to church teaching.

Early printers had to obtain licence from the government or some religious groups for any material they intended to publish. In 1944, the English poet and political writer John Milton criticized such licensing in his pamphlet. This essay was one of the earliest arguments for freedom of the press. As time went on, Great Britain and other nations ended the licensing system. By the 1800s the press of many countries had considerable freedom.

However, this freedom resulted to some amount of abuses on the part of the press. In the late 1980s, some US Newspaper published false and sensational materials to attract readers. Some people favoured government regulation to stop such abuse of the so-called “Yellow Press”.  But in most cases, the press accepted  its responsibility to the public and self regulations made government actions unnecessary.

By the 1900s, the press in many countries had lost their freedom. For example, the fascist in Italy and the Nazis in Germany destroyed press freedom and used the press for their own purposes. In same vein, most of the countries, created around the end of the World War II took to either civil or military dictatorship which actually censored the press.

Moreso, most democratic governments limited  freedom of the press in three major types of cases. In such cases, these governments believe that press freedom could endayer individuals, national security or social morality. As a result, the following press laws were put in place:

• Law against Libel- This law protect individuals from writings that could threaten their reputation or privacy.
• Law against sedition- This prevent the publication of materials that could harm a nations security.
• Law against obscenity – This law aims at the protection of the moral, of the people.

Dictatorship do not allow freedom of the press. The rulers of these government believe that they alone hold the truth and that opposition to them endangers the nation.

 

STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

The importance of the press in a society especially developing countries cannot be over emphasized. The press helps in reporting the activities of those in authority to the people so that the people will know how effective their rulers are hence making those in authority mindful of what they do bearing in mind that the growth of the country depends on how effective they are.

A country like Nigeria which has actually experienced different types of government such as the military and the civilian is yet to have a proper research work which would show the extent to which freedom has been given to the press in either of the aforementioned governments.

 

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Having stated the problem of this research study, and how important the press is and how it is necessary for it to be free in the surveillance of the environment and the society at large, it is therefore the objective of this study to evaluate the situations surrounding press freedom in Nigeria within the stipulated years.

The study would examine the effect of the activities of the government (military and civilian) on the freedom of the press.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Knowledge is not absolute, and therefore cannot exist on its own, or on particular lines of thought or ideas in isolation of other lines of thought or ideas. This study aims at contributing to the stock of knowledge already existing in this area of research. Press freedom and various types of government in Nigeria.

This study is important, in that people, at least some, are still at a loss as to which system of government brings out the best of the press.  Questions, such as whether the military skittles the press or whether the civilian government promotes the concept of press freedom, would have been provided with answers, by the time this study would be over.

The significance of this study to the audience and particular students of mass communication and even practicing journalists cannot be over emphasized. It will enable them know the pros and cons of the job, especially where the environment of practice is brought to bear. This will no doubt shapes their focus on the profession. Moreso, this study would flood the minds, of the understanding of future leaders so that their eyes would be open to the fact that the government has it as a point of duty to support the press and give her  the enabling environment to do her watch dogging in the society.

 

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

In this study, the following hypothesis were tested:

Hi: There is more press freedom in the civilian administration than in the military administration.

Ho: The press is not more free in the civilian administration than in the military administration.

H2: The press has some degree of freedom in some administration.

Ho: The press has never experienced freedom in Nigeria.

H3: There is more repressive press laws in the military administration than in the civilian administration.

Ho: Repressive press laws are not more in military administration than civilian administration.

 

CONCEPUTAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

The terms to be defined are press freedom, forms of government, the press. These terms are defined operationally and conceptually.

Press Freedom: Conceptual definition

Press freedom conceptually means the absence of censorship and other restrictive measures like harassment of journalist and editors, seizure of equipment and denial of access to source of information.

Operational definition

Operational press freedom means the freedom of the press to report objectively, the activities of the government in power without being hindered in anyway ay.

Forms of Government: Conceptual definition

Conceptually forms of government talks about the types of government existing. Civilian government mean a democratic government elected by the people. Military government means government of unselected soldiers.

Operational definition

The operational definition of forms of government is the two types of government we have experienced in Nigeria: military and civilian government (administrations).

The Press: Conceptual definition

Printed periodicals; the newspapers generally, radio and television, journals, memories, diaries.

 

Operational definition

The media houses: the Newspaper establishments, radio houses, television stations etc.

 

ASSUMPTION

It is assumed that the press is free to comment freely in their reporting of government activities and indeed all other news worthy events.

It is also assumed that in the execution of its duties, the press would gain the full support of the government not oppositions.

 

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

A closer look at the topic of this study shows that it is quite broad, covering virtually all the administrations of the country, it requires enough time to dig into materials for necessary data. This has actually created a hindrance in the collection of relevant data.

 

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1)     The World Book Encyclopedia

(F) Volume 7. pp 77. World Book – Child Gratt International, Inc.

2)     Ikechukwu E. Nwosu  Mass Communication And National

Development 1990.

3)     E. Micheal Joye/Kings Igweike   Introduction to the

Nigerian 1979 constitution 1982.

4)     The press and Government restriction Across National

study over time international journal of mass communication studies vol. 23, 1977 p. 75.

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THE NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY IN NIGERIA: A STUDY OF ENUGU NORTH LGA, ENUGU STATE

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THE EFFECT OF BILLBOARD ADVERTISING IN PRODUCT PROMOTION (A CASE STUDY OF ENUGU METROPOLIS)

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION                                    1

• Background of the study 1
• Statement of research problem 9
• Objective of the Study 10
• Research Questions 11
• Significance of the Study 11
• Hypothesis 12
• Definition of Terms 14
• Assumptions 15
• Limitation of the study 16

References.                                17

 

CHAPTER TWO

 

LITERATURE REVIEW                           18

 

• Introduction 18
• Sources of literature 18
• Contemporary mass media theories related to effects of Billboard Advertising 19,20
• Historical Development of Advertising 22
• Billboard Messages 29
• Society’s Uses and Attitude to Advertising 34
• The Advertising Media 36
• Media Selection 38
• Summary 41

References.                                              42

 

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY                              43

• Population of Study 44
• Sampling Procedure 46
• Sample size 46
• Measuring Instrument 47
• Data Collection 47
• Data Analysis
• Expected Results

References.

 

CHAPTER FOUR

 

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS                            50

• Introduction of Data Analysis 50
• Analysis of Hypothesis 52
• Discussion 61

 

CHAPTER FIVE

 

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATION, CONCLUSION

 

• Summary and Recommendation 63
• Recommendation 65

BIBLIOGRAPHY                                          69

APPENDIX.                                               73

 

ABSTRACT

 

The aim of this research work is to find out the Effects of Billboard Advertising on product promotion in Enugu metropolis.  To do this, we used survey research method to elicit the desired information from the sample produce.

In this work we started the research problem, set the objective and significance of the study, communicated the research questionnaire, reviewed some relevant literature, defined some terms, and hypothesis.  In the work, the whole of the given-tested hypotheses was empirically supported.

From the findings, we concluded that.

1. Billboard create awareness of product existence, more especially on newly introduced goods, and increase the sales.
2. Billboard advertising is more likely to convey that other forms of advertising.

• Billboard advertising appeal more to advertisement than other forms of advertising, and position goods and services quicker in people’s mind than any other media.

1. Billboard generally influences consumers’ decision
2. Billboard advertising does complement other means of advertising, thereby carrying the same message on product and services with radio, TV and other media.

After analyzing our findings and drawing our conclusion, we made some recommendations.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

 

• BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Advertising has grown increasingly popular as an object of academic inquiry, a field of professional practice and an index of modern business.  It has come to assume the centre of modern marketing and it is one of the major forms of promotion in product and service marketing.  Billboard advertising has assumed a wider and prominent position in product promotion in recent times in Nigeria. Despite electronic media, billboard advertising got product promotion on the increase.

This new discovery in product promotion has not only given rise to advertising agencies that specialized only in billboard advertising, and also a strong association of billboard advertising in Nigeria which is recognized by advertisers as a subsidiary of the advertising practitioner Council of Nigeria APCON.  But as has been articulated by Adeyemi (1969), the constitutional provision on freedom of expression can be said to amount only to an ordered freedom of which cannot be used as a license to spread communication that debased public morality.  However, many of these ethical principles have in the course of time grown to become statutory regulation codified laws. Decree 55 of 1988 among other provisions provides that APCON show regular and control the practice of advertising in all its aspects and ramifications.  It is in exercise of this immense and wide power conferred on it, that APCON developed a code of ethics to guide and regulate the practice of advertising in Nigeria.

The evidence increase in billboard advertising under sources the effectiveness of billboard in project promotion.  Billboards ensure frequent and repeated exposure to the advertisement.  Billboards are usually located at points with higher vehicular and human traffic.

Consequently, users of such points are regularly exposed to the advertisement in the board.  Secondly, billboard, also offer a high degree of locational flexibility.  In other words, the boards can be placed where the advertisers actually intended them to be.  In addition, they tend it has lower cost per thousand that most of the other media.  They are usually more cost efficient, especially for the advertiser with a small budget.  Billboard offers the advantage of very good colour reproduction and at the same time it is an effective reminder medium offer servicing as a catalyst for buyer who buy io impulse.  The greatest problems encountered by advertisers and their agencies with regard to billboard are site monitoring.  Monitoring is usually difficult and so when posters get torn or washed out, it takes a while to discover and repost.  This is because the sites are usually scattered around very far geographical locations.

The posters used on the boards are usually tedious to print and post especially when the number of sites to be covered are too many.  In other to be covered are too many.  In other words, boards make intense creative demands on the agency.  Because they are usually seen in a fleeting second, they have to be powerfully executed so as to intrude on the passers-by’s consciousness.  In this case they tend to function better as reminder media and therefore cannot serve well as the primary and sole medium for an advertising campaign.  Aside its cost efficient contributes to environmental aesthetic and enduring feature of landscape of towns, in the country.  Although the voice of the street vendor in Nigeria grows fainter with each passing year, it is still possible to hear the mournful call and tinkling bell of the old clothes and junk man, the call of the itinerant fruit peddler with his pushcart, or the street corner vendor of hot chestnuts.  And what will a football game be without the kids hawking peanut and soft drinks? Much the same call in a different language, echoed in the street.

Again, if you will glance down the length of the street in Enugu metropolis, you will notice that the storekeeper around the town have taken some pains to make sure they are not unobserved just as the market keepers did in Ogbete main market so you can see that broadcast advertising (Billboard) have all been around for a long time.  But it wasn’t until the middle ages, with the world shaking advent of the printing press and moveable type, the advertising began to take the firm most familiar to us today.

Winstan Fletch, (1979), identifies the following determinant of the strength of a billboard advertising, such as, the number of posters put in any given area the size of the poster, the specific sitting of the poster and the length of the campaign.  Because of the problem of more boards in a given area, the greater the problem of dotter, many authorities regulate the sitting of boards as to prevent their indiscriminate location poster come in standard sizes referred to as sheets.  The dimensions of a single sheet are usually expressed in inches for easy handling and processing.  A single limit of sheet is usually 20 inches wide by 30 inches deep.  The most commonly available poster formats are 16 sheets, 32 sheets and 48 sheets.

In addition, there is the painted board or bulletin boards, which are hand-painted (instead of printed posters) and typical sizes are 14 feet by 48 feet.  Posters sited at busy locations or junctions with high human and vehicular traffic are often more effective than those at less endowed locations.  Furthermore, the longer the duration of a campaign the more impact it tend to have.

Outdoor advertising has become a major advertising firms in Enugu metropolis and an indispensable source of revenue for Enugu State Government.  While advertisers buy space in Newspapers and magazines, for outdoor they rent sites.  In Enugu metropolis, renting a site centers on an advertiser the right of having his poster displayed on the site.  To do this, advertiser or his agency will retain an outdoor advertising company.  The advertising companies will have to usually built and acquire a particular site it wants or chooses from the ones the billboard company supplies.  It pays the outdoor agency for the production of the posters as well as rental fee for the sites.  Its media and client service monitor the posting to ensure that all the sites are constantly and clearly posted throughout the duration of the campaign.

For all the media enumerated, management of the advertising operation is very delicate task, since in most cases, advertising represents a significant source of corporate profitability.  For billboard companies particularly, the key task will entail keeping a tab on advertising agencies and solicitation so that they can use the billboard firm for their campaign.  Other task include monitoring of sites to ensure that posters are in good order and properly posted, invoicing agencies for sites created and posted, ensuring prompt payments      and prompt payment of rental charges to the state government via local authorities.  In executing this research, the researcher will try to identify why billboard advertising seems to be more popular than other means of advertising in terms of product promotion in Enugu metropolis.  Also this study will try to find out the acceptability of billboard advertising in the society.  Among other things, this study also hopes to establish the contribution of billboards to product promotion and consumption.

 

• STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

There has been an appreciable growth in product and services promotion activities by marketers in Nigeria, especially through advertising.  Recently, below, the line advertising especially billboard has gained tremendous popularity.  Going round the major roads and street in Enugu metropolis particularly strategic location will reveal the degree of usage ad number of colourful billboard of various sizes carrying advertisement promotion products of various manufactures.

They are located in strategic traffic points.  Also rural areas are not spread of this billboard galore.  Why his sudden increase in the use of billboard?  Could it be that billboard has acquired new potency for product promotion?  This and many were ignited the researcher, to look into the effect of billboard in product promotion with special emphasis on Enugu metropolis as a case study.

 

• OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

This study has among other objective the following.

1. To find out if billboard advertising is increasing in Enugu
2. To determine the effectiveness of billboard advertising in product promotion.
3. To determine why it appeals to prospective product consumers.
4. To find out whether it carried or reinforces the same message with other media in the same product.
5. To find out the contribution to environmental beauty or otherwise.

 

 

• RESEARCH QUESTIONS.

For this study, the following questions are raised.

1. Is billboard advertising on the increase in Enugu metropolis?
2. Do Nigerian advertisers patronize billboard advertising?
3. Do billboard advertising influence consumers in Enugu
4. Does billboard advertisement message reinforce electronic and print media message?
5. Does billboard advertising contribute to environmental beauty?

 

• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study brings to our knowledge the degree of influence other product promotion activities and advertising exerts on billboard advertising.

The study will also serve as a guide to manufacturers and advertisers in their day-to-day management of product promotion via the billboard advertising.  On the other hand, this study will serve as literature/good feasibility study for prospective investors in billboard advertising sub-sectors.

 

• HYPOTHESES

H₁:  Billboard advertising is more likely to convey the advertising message better than other forms of advertising.

H₀:  Billboard advertising is not more likely to convey the advertising message better than other forms of advertising.

H₂:  Billboard advertising appeals more than other forms of advertising.

H₀:  Billboard advertising does not appeal more than other forms of advertising.

H₃:  Billboard advertising influences consumer in his choice of product or service.

H₀:  Billboard advertising does not influence consumer in his choice of product or service.

H₄:  Billboard advertising message contradicts other advertisings messages.

H₀:  Billboard advertising message does not contradict other advertising messages.

H₅:  Billboard advertisings tend to be defacing the beauty of our citizens more than other forms of advertisings.

H₀:  Billboard advertisings do not deface the beauty of our citizens more than other forms of advertising.

 

• DEFINITION OF TERMS

Conceptual and operational:

1. Effect:

Conceptual:   This refers to the striking impression of message a picture or an event has on the individual or society.

Operational:  This refers to the average number of Enugu residents that the picture and wording of Coca-Cola billboard have made striking impression on.

2. Promotion:

Conceptual:   This is the publishing and advertising of product tangible or intangible.

Operational:  This is the placement of board – Coca Cola drink in strategic places in Enugu metropolis.

3. Product:

Conceptual:   This refers to a bundle of utility offered to the consumer by a profit and non-profit organization.

Operational:  This refers to the average number of product advertisement that are placed on billboard in various strategic places in Enugu metropolis.

 

1.8  ASSUMPTIONS

1. Billboard advertising is not a remainder medium in Nigeria
2. Billboard advertising if properly packaged, beautifies the environment.
3. It is assumed that billboard advertising is easy to understand and repeat.
4. It is assumed that communication is very simple with few words and big illustrations.
5. It is also assumed that billboard advertising on the streets is seen by passers-by who can only take a brief and hold message.

 

1.9  LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Time for the study was not enough to do more than is done.  The study is restricted to only billboard advertising and is limited to Enugu metropolis for convenience.  The measuring instrument adopted also constituted limitation on its own.

However, the researcher turned the necessary stones – finance was a serious handicap and uncooperative attitude of people during research.

 

REFERENCES

Adeyemu O. (1969), The Use and misuse of Billboard in Laos.

Bidem 91991), Essentials of modern Advertising, Lagos, JICE COMMUNICATION.

FLECHER, w. (1979), The strength and weakness of Billboard advertising, Quoted in Mon, S. J. (1987), Advertising (3^rd Edition) India Prentice Hall Private Limited.

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MASS MEDIA COVERGE OF CRIME IN NIGERIAN NEWSPAPERS, A CONTNENT ANALYSIS OF THE GUARDIAN AND DAILY TIMES NEWS PAPERS

ABSTRACT

One major media ethics is to disseminate information using the various forms of media to reach their teeming audience.

However, considering the fact that this topic examined the “media coverage of crimes” in our society, directing attention towards the control of criminal activities in the society.

However, to ensure that the exposure of illegal activities is one of the surest way of combating this, readers of newspapers and the society at large are bound to enjoy. This crime as they occur in the society are adequately reported, so as to be put into the newspapers, this like case study which was fail and to Guardian and Daily times newspapers both of the have a strong hold on the people as regards crime stories which hope fully the, was able to screened through.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

• Background of study
• Statement of research problem

1.3 Purpose of study

1.4 Research question

1.5 Research hypothesis

1.6 Definition of term conceptual operational

1.7  Assumption

• Scope and limitation
• Theoretical frame works

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature review

2.1 Summary of literature

CHAPTER THREE

3.0    Research methodology

• Research method
• Research design

3.3      Research population and sample

3.4      Technique used in determing sample size

3.5       Measuring instrument

3.6        Definition or description of categories

3.7         Story type or treatment

3.8         Method of data collection

3.9          Method of data analysis

3.10        Remedies/solution

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Presentation of data

4.1 Presentation of data and analysis & result

4.2 Data analysis and interpretation

4.3  Discussion

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Summary and conclusion

Appendix

Reference

Bibliography

LIST OF TABLE

 

Table 1 number of crime stories on the front and lack pages and inside page table 11 list of times cases / motive were or stated.

Table 111 classification of length of crime stories or mention.

Table 1v classification of crime stories into straight news and investigation and interpretation report.

Table v number of times remedies or solution were either includes or not.

Table v1 number of times crime stories were features as lead stories.

Table v11 number of times crime stories were accompanies with illustrations of picture.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

“One promise for the suppression of crimes activities is to recognize that lack of awareness and concern by the public is the crimes greatest ally. The efforts of any branch of society directed toward controlled criminal activities will be largely unsuccessful unless the public is made aware of criminal methodology and the magnitude of crimes. Publicity and honest exposure of dry ups source of revenue for an organization engaged in criminal activities. ”

The above statement by Denny F. Face and Jininie c style 1975,pp.89-90 underscores the need for the Nigerian mass media to intensity efforts in crime reporting.

Crimes, whether against person, habitations property morality and decency, public peace, against justice and authority or against public safety, are serious offences which are not only punishable by law but can also seriously hinder the development of a society. In case, crime divest effects of the offender on a negative path toward development.

Crime seems to be accentuated in the society by lack of patience of each new generation to pass the rigorous and arduous process which their parent have passed to attain greatness, other sociological and psychological or every hereditary problem often erupt contribute to crime. For instance, a child who is brought up in the ghetto with not much facilities of leaning or without a good up bringing and grows up exposed to aggregation as a way of life will most likely grow up in an aggregation adult.  Because no individual lives in isolation of his/her environment, a child born in a disorderly society where crimes is on the increase will well direct, live to reflect in his/her styles all these abnormities in which he/she is born into . The worry is what are the chance of such an individual brought up in such a conditions ever becoming a good citizen”

There are number of advantage reader of newspaper and the society at large are bound to enjoy if crimes as they occur in society are adequately reported and given the desired pronounce in the pages of newspaper.

Firstly, the citizen are alerted about the made of operation of criminal in order to safeguard themselves from the menace of the criminal.

Secondly, the citizen are educated on the techniques of a crime. This is important, because a large number of Nigeria do not know the  law, let alone what constitution a crime .

Unfortunately, ignorance of the law is no excuse and same weight of punishment faces the informed and uninformed citizenry but in the Nigerian situation crimes stories tend not to be given due prominence in the pages of the newspaper. The assumption may be that no other classes of stories have a edged out such crime stories. There is however, an expressed by manifest psychological feeling of Nigerian, toward crimes. The society itself treat criminal with contempt perhaps the preference given to non-crimes by the media arises from the thinking of the practitioner to spot-light issues that will generate larger reader interest.

It is quite clear to us that in our society deviation from agreed social norms and mores are regarded with disdain. Even the ex-convicts are not fully rehabilitated and accepted. Even when crimes are reported in Nigeria newspaper emphasis may or many not be  placed on probing the motives of such a crime, stress seems be attached more to the out come or punishment that accompanies such crimes

It is a truism that an intention to comment a crime to one of the essential ingredient of a crime. The motives for a crime should be ascertained by reporting in order to provide clues that will help to reforming the criminal. It is important also to ally the feat that reporting a crime by our mass media may result in lawlessness and increase in waves. This study also recognized that an increase in crimes waves many hinder the economic, political and social advancement of the society.

1.2 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

A more pertinent question is:

1. Does the coverage of crimes were the newspaper guide the possible causes of crimes?
2. How does a Nigeria newspaper view crime?

3          Do they state possible remedies to these crimes?

4          Does the editorial process of editing and rewriting influence or affect the reporting of crime stories?

5          Does the personalities of the criminal affect the reporting of crimes ?

These and others are the numerous kinds of question which we went to approach in this study, so that a complete answer and resolution of all these question or factors could lead to a presentation and stoppage of crimes .

Some of the causes why crimes are reported the way they are presently or why some crimes stories do not get reported is as follows:

The journalist is an individual who has his or her own biases and in the reported is as follows:

The journalist is an individual who has his or her own biases and in the reported crimes, he first of all decides if his crimes is newsworthy using his own sense of value judgment and other parameter for judging news value like prominence, proximity, consequence, human interest   etc. Even when he decides that such a stony is of significance, he also has decide from which angle to approach it what issues to include or exclude in the news storm.

At every stage of the process, the strong has a high probability of changing it’s form at any stage of the process through either being edited (inclusion or exclusion of some facts) or through being totally rewritten.

Some of the consideration at this stage could be who were involved in the crime story. We cannot escape from the fact that newspaper publishing is a business interest of the paper in involved, the story gets omitted completely, re-adjusted so as not hurt them or the names of the individuals involved are completely omitted. The legal involvement of the story is also another primary consideration in the way and manner the story is also reported. The story may be true in every material aspect, but either as a result of Timidity or fear or instigations the story may get meddled up or not adequately reported.

 

• PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The nonchalant attitude of some media organization in the country to crime reporting is a neglect of the important rote which the press is expected to play in the society. The purpose of this study therefore is to determine the degree of importance mass media. Organization in Nigeria attach to crime reporting.

Another purpose of this study is to highlight the need for proper and frequent reports of criminal events in the country. This is very important as the study aims to set out good guideline for crime reporters in the reporting of crime news

The important of the study Conklin (1970—375) stated that; “fear of crime in a community not only affect the mental well being of residents from the area , but it may also lead to isolation of stranger and new resident from those who have lived in community for longer period of time feeling of not being safe in the area may lead to a deterioration of social solidarity in the community for resident may stay in doors rather than walking on the streets and interact with neighbor” .

The above statement underscored the important of this study. These is need for adequate investigation and interpretation of criminal news event as they occurs, therefore this study will in addition focus on the necessity of regular reporting of the made of operation of criminal. We are doing this on the ground that no good government can fold its hand or pay lip service to the activities of heartless criminal. This is the role, which the press in their social responsibility function are expected to play. The inadequacy of such reports and their lack of objectivity in a print a major concern.

Obviously, crime news stories most of the time are not given the prominence relative to other news stories carried by Nigeria newspaper. This neglect a lots of advantages to be gained by reporting criminal activities regularly and objectively. This study will perhaps help to draw attention to these pages.

• RESEARCH QUESTION

The following research question guided this study:

1. What are the effects of reporting crimes in Nigeria newspaper
2. Does the coverage of crimes by the newspaper guide the possible covers of crimes?
3. Does the editorial process of editing and rewriting influence or affect the reporting of crime stories?
4. How does Nigerians newspaper views crimes?
5. Does the personality of the criminal affect the reporting of crimes?
6. State possible remedies to these crimes?

• RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

H1       only a relatively small percentage crime stories appear on the front and back pages of most Nigerian newspaper .

H0       not only a relatively small percentage crime stories appear on the front and back page of most Nigerian newspaper .

H2       Nigeria newspaper tend to emphasis the problem , motive or caustic of reported crime.

H2       Not all NIgeria newspaper tend to emphasis the problem , motive or cause of reported crime.

H3       Not all newspaper devote enough space to public enlightenment of what constitution a crime .

H4       Crime stories are likely to form the  lead stories in the front and back pages of most newspaper.

H4       Not all crime stories are likely to form the lead stories in the front and back pages of most newspaper.

 

1.6       DEFINITION    OF TERM:

CONCEPTUAL & OPERATIONAL

Conceptual: The website reference dictionary of the English language defines coverage as , covering or provision for something by agreement covered communication , the send and receiving areas of  radio or TV station the number of readers in an area served by a publication or broadcasting news.

Crime: “crime is defined as an offence for which there is serve punishment by the foolish or wrong act, not necessarily an offence against the law”

Newspaper: A medium of communication usually published daily or weekly, by which information and current affairs opinion and entertainment features are circulated among the people.

Coverage of crime: May be defined to them the publication of news stories concerning or more crimes as defined above.

Criminal acts: criminal acts will be defined as a deliberate intention aimed at committing a crime as defined earlier.

Such crimes and criminal acts are: murder

Burglary, robbery, fraud                                                                                                                                                             Kidnapping , embezzlement

Homicide, rot, defamation, arson

Manslaughter, dry trafficking,

Conspiracy, counterfeiting

Food and drug acts

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

CRIMES: Excludes all civil offence but will include all other offence against the state or a person no matter it’s classification

NEWSPAPER: The researchers wish to define newspaper to means “the guardian and the daily times.

COVERAGE: The amount types or nature of stories pertaining period of times in the newspaper understudy.

ASSUMPTION

In this study, the researcher made the following assumption.

1. That Nigeria newspaper carries stories relating to crimes in their various editions.
2. Nigeria newspaper is an effective instrument that can help in crimes prevention.
3. Nigerian press use investigation journalist in coverage of crime in Nigeria.
4. It will serve bases for reference future researchers in these areas.

 

1.7 SCOPE AND LIMINATION

As it usual with a study of this nature guardian and daily newspaper, time is always a constraint, in addition to lack of adequate finance to embark on a more extensive study.  These limitations have made this research to be limited to a study of two national newspaper am0ong the many newspaper in circulation in the country. This is with the thinking that the finding from this study will give an insight into the coverage of crime stories by other Nigeria newspaper.

 

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The teleological theory also called consequence ethnics (Tschidin, 1992) which can also be referred to as “kind sight” ethnics (Merrill and Lowenstein, 1979)

Considering the fact that the project is concerned about the coverage of crimes in Nigeria, the laws guiding our journalists still puts them in check. If we have to avoid reporting crime in our newspaper or policies station how then are the people going to be aware of the happen ? and how do they get assistance.

This theory mentioned above early is concerned with the good or bad it produce under this theory it gave rise to two other ones which are namely Egonish and the other utilitarianism. The ethnical egoist according to Thiuroux (1980) believes that human being ought to act in their own self – interest.

While the utilitarian says that human being ought to  act in the interest of all concerned . You will accept with me that report event especially crime which is for the good of the society and with the assistance of the police such crimes can be arrested.

Having in mind that the laws guiding the press too does not permitted receivable of gift for a job which is rightfully theirs. Whenever to report a police officer misconduct or a contract deal involving a top government official. Such is also criminal. If it involves the life of a citizen, its even worse.

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THE IMPACT OF WESTERN TELEVISION PROGRAMMES ON THE CULTURAL VALUES OF THE NIGERIAN YOUTHS: A CASE STUDY OF ESUT STUDENTS, ENUGU.

ABSTRACT

This study probes the impact which TV. has on the cultural values of the Nigerian youths.   It specifically tackles the impact of western TV. programmes on Nigerian university students.  The research posits that the current trends in cultural behaviour of youths in Nigeria as observed among ESUT students Enugu is significantly associated with their perception of Western culture and exposure to western TV. programmes.

The assumption that foreign media content has direct powerful effects is shared by optimistic modernization theory Lerner 1962, Rovers 1964, Schramm 1964) and the later critical perspective of cultural and media imperialism (MCphail 1981, Pltschull  1984, Garbner 1977.

Previous studies by Payne and Peake (1977), Barnette Mcphail (1980) Skinner (1984) have all  found western television especially U.S TV. as having levels of influence on the cultural values of viewers in less Developed countries.

The research applies the theory of Acculturation, along  with the cultivation of enculturation hypothesis.  Defluer and Dennies 1991, Garbner 1977, Morgan 1991).  To explain that acculturation of Nigerian youths takes place as a result of exposure to western TV. which influence the perception of TV. reality and alters self image.  From the review of related literature, the following hypothesis emerged for testing.

Hi more exposure  to TV will tend to load to identification of western TV stars as models.

H2 imitation of the behaviours of TV stars will tend to be higher among those who identify with western TV stars than those who identify with Nigerian/African TV. stars.

H3 students who prefer watching western TV will  tend to approve of  girls initiating love relationship  with men more than those who depend more on TV. for information and entrainment will tend to chose to migrate to western countries more than those who depend more on other media.

Research hypothesis 1, 2, and 3 received statistical support  from the analysis of collected data using the survey research method.  The testing of hypothesis 4 shows that there are other factors  which influence choice of emigration site along with TV. Recommendations to check the  cultural genocide for further research were preferred.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

The Roots                                                                                    1

Maintaining the edge                                                                   4

Television in Nigeria                                                                   10

• Background of the study 13
• Statement of the research problem 16
• Objectives of the study 17
• Significance of the study 18
• Research questions 20
• Research hypothesis 21
• Conceptual and operational definition 22
• Assumption 24
• Limitations of the study 25

 

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

• Sources of literature 27
• The Review 28
• Summary of literature Review 32

 

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

• Research method 47
• Research Design 48
• Measuring instrument 48
• Data collection 49
• Data Analysis 50
• Expected Result 51

 

CHAPTER FOUR

• Data analysis 54
• Results 65
• Discussions 71

 

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION

• Summary 79
• Recommendation for further study 80

 

Bibliography                                                                                       89

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

THE ROOTS

Why are we what we are? Third world!

There are two broad competiting paradigms or models of theoretical understanding that seek to explain why some countries are poor and other are wealthy, why some are “first world” and others” Third world”.  These broad competiting paradigms are theory of “modernization” and the theory of “imperialism”.  Each paradigms has its own “clue concepts” or key explanatory categories” (Hagen 1962).

For modernist theorists the determinant of the social economic situation of any country is the concept of “modern” and its permutation and big categories such as “institutional differentiation” “development” “development”, “nation building”, “economic growth” “advanced industrial societies”, “Westernized” , “backward”, “primitive”, “tribalized” and many more.

On the other hand, those who employ the theory of imperialism have as their concepts such terms as “dependence”, “colonialism”, “liberation”, “Exploitation”, “late capitalist societies” or “societies in the stage of monopoly  capitalism”.

The backbone of the theory of modernization has been derived from a convergence of sources in the  social sciences in the western societies over a long period of time.

What modernization theorists most often end up with is ethnocentric piratical recipes which admonish the poor societies to imitate them all the way and they would acquire a sudden leap into the 21^st century.  In order words, join the Calvinistic cruet and you will experience a sudden leap into modernity.

The theory of imperialism on the other hand derives its concepts from Marxist sources.  In a nut shell, the wealth and poverty of nations result from the global process of exploitation.  This is the situation that Andre Gunder Frank (1969) refers to as the “the development of under development”.

The problem of the poor countries  with particular reference to Nigeria is not the lack of technological know how, cultural traits conducive for development, or modern institutions, as is touted by modernists theorists, but that they have been subjected to the exploitation of the international capitalist system and its special imperialist agents, both domestic and alien.

The fundamental conceptual instrumentarium of the critique of imperialism is provided in lenin’s theory of imperialism.

“Imperialism: the highest stage of “capitalism” (1916).  The basic pronouncement in the book seems to be that the evils associated with foreign capitalist penetration of the poor countries are the necessary concomitants of capitalism in its present stage.

Nevertheless modernization theorists have also continued to argue that the present influence of the west is not the result of their exploitation of the third world countries.  They state that this particular argument gives the poor societies” a moral legitimacy” to demand aid or trade concessions.  Sort of  “reparation” from their alleged exploiters.  However the agree that rich countries depend on poor ones for certain raw materials but that this dependency is declining, and that a great decline in this dependence is expected in view of technology innovations and search for alternative resources nearer home.

Whatever may be the case the fact remains that the fattest profits for developed countries come from their overseas investments.  Offiong (1980) argues that it would be wrong to say that the industrialized nations will decrease their dependence on raw materials on the third world nations.

“They will continue to maintain a global policy designed to protect the sources of their crucial raw materials and markets for their finished products”.

MAINTAINING THE EDGE

          It is true that bourgeoisies social scientists in the west (The united states being the headquarters) and even in third world countries have gone out of their way to discredit the Marxist-Leninist theory, social scientists in the west must have undertaken the actions as a sort of strategy. But for those in third world only ignorance could answer for their action.

          Indeed the Euro African connection from it’s inception, some five centuries ago to the independence decade (1960s), visited Africa with the holocaust of slaving, the trauma of invasion and conquest the humiliations and complexes of occupation, and with a systematic and continuing impoverishment:

          In the 1960’s and 1970’s, it became apparent that the west European Expansionism was retreating.  The question then, according to Chinweizu (1978) was “were the Europeans retreating forever or were they retreating to regroup for another assault upon the rest of us”.  From  the situation in the current dispensation, it is clear that the answer to Chinweizu’s question is that the west Europeans were retreating to regroup for another assault against us.   The difference is that today the united states of America (who came out of the second world victorious) is the leader of the regroup. Again the assault is now more subtle but less no powerful than physical assault.

The genesis began with the acceptance and adopted of the modernists solution to underdevelopment.  One of such theories which relate to this subtle method of assault-international communication is given by Lerner (1956).  In his  concept of “empathy”, Lerner states that the inhabitants of third world nations must learn to empathize with the west for modern  transformation of their societies to be possible.

          Schramm (1964) on the other hand developed an interesting model in which he equates the level of social development to various nations.  Access to these modern mass media (Radio, Television, Films, Telephone and newspapers) is also linked to individual modernity.

          Nigeria and other third world countries have reacted to these findings by inventing a substantial amount of their foreign exchange earnings to import radio and Television transmitters and sets.  Thus setting the stage for imperialism.

          Thomas L. MC phial (1981) described this new form of imperialism through the media as “Electronic imperialism”.  He stresses that over the years, there have been but a few major trends in empire building.  The first era which occurred during the Greece-Foman period was characterized by military conquests.  The second era which was during the middle age involved mutant Christianity.  The third era which lasted between the 17^th and middle of 20^th century was essentially mercantile colonialism fueled by industrial revolution and a desire to both import raw materials and find export markets for the finished products.

          World war I and II not only stopped major military expansion movement but also placed the industries of the west in command of vial trade routes and practices.

          By the middle of the 20^th century there began a shift to a service based economy in the west which relies substantially on telecommunication systems, which traditionally geographical borders and barriers to international communications are being rendered obsolete.

          The post industrial society with information related services being the corner stone, has significant implication for industrial nations alike.  Military and mercantile colonialism of the past may be replaced by “Electric colonialism” in the future.  It might become possible that a nation state may now be able to move from the stone Age to the information Age, without having passed through the interring steps of industrialization.

From MC Phial’s explanation many countries including Nigeria could be said to be on the with electronics.  This trend is indicated by the dependency relationship between third world counties as Nigeria and the industrialization countries as Japan and America. Third world countries depends on industrialization ones for communication hardware, produced soft wares, and related information protocols, that vicariously establish a set of foreign norms, values, and expectations which in varying degrees, may alter the domestic cultures and socialization processes.  Essentially, Electronic colonialism of the 18^th and 19^th centuries.

          The above reality has resulted in upsurges of nationalism in many third world countries.  The nationalists show parallel concern for political, economic as well as cultural control over their own destinies.  This concerns have over the years been typified with terms as “Non Aligment” “New international Economic order”, and New world information order” respectively for political, economic and cultural issues.

          It is with the cultural issues that students of journalism and telecommunication find theoretical and research interesting for instance, two of the largest issues international concern that link the third and west, and frequently on opposing sides, are the performance of the major wire services, (Associate press AP, Reuters, Agence France press Afp, united press international UPI).  The major television broadcast syndicates (Visnews and UPIIN) and direct broadcast satellites (DBS).

These big time players in the milieu of international communications are firmly owned and controlled by western Europe and U.S to serve their interest.  It has been sufficiently documented that western News media especially the American News media have been consistently found.

(Schiller 1976) to portray Africans as dangerous, unstable, non present, non active, unproductive and therefore always in need of help.  Little wonder why a little European boy, when he saw an elegantly dressed African gentlemen in the international City of Geneva, said to his mother “mummy he’s hungry  him some money”.  This shows the power if the media to shape perceptions especially when there are no alternative sources of information.

          Likewise individuals and  groups in Africa are exposed to the media of the west.  If news about Africa in the Western news media is all about confusion, backwardness, then Africans will logically have negative perceptions about themselves and their African neighbours.  Such a situation is what structurelist call a disgussed form of cultural imperialism.  In this type of set up, where the developed nations dominate the flow of news or mediate the flow of news to and fro, to and among the developing nations, there is created a state of dependency, a desire and ability to develop and think more like the developed nations.

TELEVISION IN NIGERIA

“It is simply impossible to exaggerate the impact of television on our lives and the lives of our children.  It is often said but nonetheless worthy of  repetition that television has altered our consciousness, our manner of relating to other people and world, our decisions about the expenditure of our wealth and the use if our leisure reordered our lives that we do  not yet recognize the change”.  Television, that which has occupied the central position in the issue of international communication especially intercultural and cross cultural  communication issues, came into being in 1884 with the perception of the  scanning disk by Paul Nikpow.  The scanning disk was a forerunner of modern Television.

In 1923 Vlodimir Zworkin, a Russian resident America invested the picture tube-conoscope  which he later perfected in 1929 by developing the catholery tube –Kinescope.  Television broadcasting began first in Britain in 1936, and followed by United states of America in 1939.

          Television and Television broadcasting in Nigeria developed along regional lines.  In 1959, the Western Nigerian Television INNTV was  established by the western region government.  The Eastern Nigerian  government followed suit in 1960 with the establishment of Eastern Nigeria Television (ENTV) Enugu and so it continued.

As at 1997, there were two privately owned satellite television stations in Nigeria.  African independent television AIT Lagos and many broadcast international MBI one partial satellite television transmission station (NTA Network); 42 cable television stations, II private radio stations, 23 state television stations, 28 NTA stations; and nine private television stations.  Television is now obviously the most important medium for entertainment in most parts of the world.  It most obviously involves the content of the screen –programs, actions, people and places.

Many social scientists agree that all of the interesting effects of television can be traced to the images on the screen.  The exclusive cause of changes in perceptions, judgments, evaluations, emotions and even bodily functions is thought to be information in two-dimensional florescent light that  appears within the boundaries of the tube.

The government of the federal republic of Nigeria understands the ability of television to affect peoples ways if life  that it set out in the cultural policy documents to keep Nigerian television Nigerian.

Processing the roles which television should play and policy states that Television should be used to project Nigeria arts and culture and value system.

b.              At least 70% of television programmes should be produced locally.

c.               The programme content of television  should be made relevant to Nigerian realities history and achievements.  The extent to which these  aims can be achieved is limited by very many factors bordering on globalization of information and privatization and commercialization of the broadcast industry.

          With the introduction of Direct Broadcast satellite (DBS), the government owned stations had easy access to foreign produced programmes coming mainly foreign from Europe and America.

          Also by commercialization and privatizing the industry, it became difficult for government owned television stations to continue to carry out their social obligations with out government funding.  The private television provided very stiff completion and were attracting more advertising revenue than government owned  media houses.

          It is an effort to attract advert revenue which is ensured by packaging programmes that will attract a lot if viewers that the major government television stations NTA broadcasts foreign programmes such as soap  operas, music videos, cartoons movies etc.

1.1     BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

          The last ten years have witnessed the privatization and commercialization of the broadcast medium. It has witnessed the most pervasive period of foreign television programmes and films into Nigeria.  The foreign television programmes states and western Europe and even when they are not from these places as the cases with soap operas from Mexico, they are only local variations of international capitalism.

          American made programmes particularly are seen in  practically every country where television exists.  It is believed to exert influential power in various countries.  There is no question that one of the more remarkable phenomena of the 21^st century is the widespread diffusion and accompanying popularity of American films and television entertainment programmes throughout the world Guback (1969), Lee (1980); Tunshall (1977); Wells (1972).

          It is my belief in line with that if most local critics of American television industry (Hamelink 1983; Schiller 1989, 1976; Mattelert 1970) that the United states and western Europe hold sway over the economics as well as the cultures of third would countries.

          In Nigeria as exemplified by trends in Enugu metropolis and use where, western exports of television entertainment are shown in NTA Enugu, ESBSTV, minaj systems, channels, MGM, Cartoon Network, CNN international, TNT classical movies, ESPN – Expanded sports programme Network) channels provided by various satellite transmission operators as DSTV, Multi choice, music television, Euro sports etc.

          I am aware that the inclusion of NTA Enugu and ESBS in course of foreign television programmes might raise eyebrows.  There inclusion is due to the fact that most of their programmes which have been documented to be viewed most by youths, expose youths to foreign cultures.  Such programmes include soap operas, movies and youths programmes as “our generation” and defunct youth perspectives.

          “Our Generation “ is shown on NTA Enugu while “Youth perspectives” is shown on ESBS.  The two programmes are presented by youth and are regrettably replete with music video of western origin dominated by rap stars as Tupac shakur (late) Beyonce Ashanti, 50 – cent, Sean Paul, Kell Rowland  big, Queen Latita, Eeline Dion etc.

          it is my belle that western television especially American television exports is conscious/strategic “weapons” aimed at subduing the cultural values of less developed countries.

          There could be no more explicit admission of this strategic communication they one made byu sig Mickelson, president Radio free Europ/Radio liberty in Jan 21, 1977, about the move by the solviet union and third world countries for balanced flow of introduction in defence of indigenous interests and culture against the dominance of the west.  Mictleson states that success of this campaign would have effect of moving the philosophy and practices of the third world societies further away from those of the western world, alienating and isolating our own philosophy and practices.

1.2     STATEMENT OF THE RESEARITY PROBLEMS

          The average Nigerian youth, it is oberserved is always eager to be associated with the developed nations the Europe and north America.  He sees the western countries as a model.  He “thinks” western while  earnestly hoping that one day he will be in the white works.

          Many Nigerian youths tend to imitate western cultures  especially American cultures.  Nigerian youths either talk” or dress American.  The Nigeria youth appears to see everything America western in  a positive light at the expense of local cultures, norms and values.

          Nigeria university student have low me  a set of brain washed youths who think more of the trancient and canal ideals of  western cultures, rather than their own.  This has led top increase in the rate of violence, rape, gengsterism, weird dressing, juveniles delinquency, drug addition, excessive desire for foreign products, sexual perversion unpatriotism, burning desire to migrate to the U.S and western European countries etc.  All of which have tremendous negative effect on our bid for national development.

1.3     OBJECTIVE OF THE TSUDY

1.       To  isolate western television and examine its pervasive impact on the cultural values of Nigerian University Students

2.       To show how the contents of western TV. Programmes effects Nigerian  university students.

3.       To show if their perspection of the west affects their attitude towards western TV. Programmes.

4.       To show the relationship between exposure and the desire to migrate to the U.S and Western Europe.

5.       To show the implications of the western TV culture on Nigeria as a state.

6.       To make recommendations based on the findings of this research.

 

 

1.4     SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TSUDY

          It has been observed and stated severally that moral bankruptcy among Nigerian youth especially university students is growing in leaps and bounds.  Local cultures, values, tradition, norms and mores are sacrificed at the alter of modernity.  Excessive positive perception of the western world by Nigerian youths may translate to umpatriotism for their own country.

          This study is an offshoot of the  concern for the possible dilution, domination and finally absorption of the African/Nigerian culture which until the present has been characterized with good neighbourliness, respect for elders, virtuousness, group or community orientation and collectivism.

          The Nigerian youths perception of western especially, American behavioural norms and values as better than their own, is a key element in preparing them for acculturation leading to low Nigeria self-image, high projected self image and a flaring desire to migrate to the west especially to the united states of America.

          It will not be unusual in a visit of any university in Nigeria to find individuals imitating behavioural modes of dress, attitudes, and  mannerisms of the personalities they  admire including fictional characters with whom they identify on TV. Idolized and imitated international, are modes of dressing, and often personal idiosyncratic behaviours of popular stars as notorious Big (Late), 50 Cent, Sean Paul, Michael  Jackson, late Tupec-Shakur, Ashanti, Kelli, Rowland, Celine Dion, and such characters as Van Damm, Schwarzenegger, Silverster Stallon, Leonardo Decaprio, Jennifer Lopez, Chuck Noris etc.

          It has been observed and disturbingly that Nigerian University students in increasingly greater numbers, adopt and imitate behaviours aid life styles portrayed by dominant cultures of countries outside their own to the influence of which they have become exposed.

          Such a situation is not healthy for a developing country as Nigeria especially now that genuine attempts are being made at putting in place a credible democratic process. The conduct of this research at this time will enable the government to know what role the media  can play in the development of any country and therefore enable them harness the mass media especially TV to help in the democratic process, and the development process in general.

          The research is also particularly timely because as a result of technological developments process and economic pressures, international programmes movements especially from U.S and western European countries are likely to increase.  The result of this research will enable the government and other policy makers to put adequate measures in place to check the movements and its effects.

          Most research on emigration in economic and demography has concentrated not on the role of information but on economic and political conditions.  From the result of this research, the government will understand if a fine-turning of international broadcast industry could help  tackle the issue of brain drain.

1.5          RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Do Nigerian youths expose themselves more to TV. Than other media?
2. Do they prefer western TV. Programmes to locally produced ones and why if yes?
3. does exposure to foreign TV programmes affect Nigerian youths attitude to the western nations?
4. In what ways do these attitudes manifest in the behaviours of Nigerian youths.
5. Do Nigerian youths identify more with local or foreign TV. Stars ?
6. Will improvement of local TV./movies industries improve Nigerian youths preference for local TV. Products

 

1.6     RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

Hi:  More exposure to TV. Will lead to identification of western TV. Stars as models.

Ho:  More exposure to TV. Will not lead to identification of western TV stars as models.

H₂:  Imitation of the behaviours of TV. Stars will tend to be high among those  who identify with western TV. Stars than those who  identify with Nigerian/African TV. Stars.

Ho:  Imitation of the behaviours of TV. Stars will not tend  to be higher among those who identify with western TV stars than those who identify with Nigerian/African TV stars.

H₃:  students who prefer watching western TV will tend to approve of girls initiating love relationship with men more than those who do not.

Ho:  Students who prefer  watching western TV will not tend to approve of  girls initiating love relationship with men more than those who do not.

H₄:  Those who depend more on TV for international and entrainment  will tend to chose to emigrate to western countries more than those who depend more on other media.

H0:  those who depend more on TV. For information and entertainment will not tend to close to migrate to western countries more than those who depend more on other media.

 

1.7     CONCEPTIONAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITON

1. Youth

Conceptual:  youth conceptually defined, means young men and women.

Operational: For the purpose of this study youth is defined as students in various universities in Nigeria and who fall between the ages of 16 – d 30.

1. Media

Conceptual: This include all instrument of communication such as telephones, radio, TV, newspapers etc.

Operational:  Media is operationalized in this study to refer to TV. Broadcast which are available to  viewers in Nigeria.

iii.      Cultural Identity

Conceptual:  Cultural identity of any person is the self definition, self perception and self-image of that person as a member of a group exhibiting uniform culture that are consistent with the values of that group.

Operational: Cultural identity is operationally defined as those commonly shares socio-political interpretations and meanings related to the beliefs, norms, values, attitudes and behaviours within Nigerian.

1. Cultural dominance:

Conceptual: This refers to nations of neocolonialism based on a policy and practice that have the effect of dominating the culture and affairs of less developed countries.

Operational – Cultural dominance in this study means the conscious and unconscious domination by western TV. media and media systems of Nigeria.

 

1.8     ASSUMPTIONS

1. That a greater number of Nigeria university students watch TV.
2. That western TV. Programmes have a greater appeal to

Nigerian university students than do locally produces

programmes.

3. That the programmes contents of western TV. projects symbolic forms of social reality which are consistent with a common perception that western culture, as portrayed on TV is superior to Nigerian culture.
4. That the foreign programmes also projects a common perception that success, in whatever sense, is generated by, represented by is consistent with the symbolic behaviour played out in western TV. Programmes.
5. The western TV. Programmes portray symbolic behaviours that are alien to the national culture values of the Nigerian perple.
6. The western TV. Is having a great acculturation impact on Nigerian university students in particular and on Nigeria youths in general.

1.9     LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

          Media imperialism is served by the TV Industry.  TV has enabled developed capitalist nations as America to “no longer grabs territory or rarely, but grabs consciousness, ways of thinking, ways of living” says Jacques Long, the French minister of culture in 1982 (Diome 1982).

Western TV> has more than permeated the cultural consciousness of Nigerian youths.  This study therefore examines the data in the light of both connotive and denotive meaning of media imperialism.

However due to the limitations of time and financial resources, I had to delimit the sample to university students in ESUT Enugu.  Had it been that time and resources were available similar studies would have been done in other selected schools in the country so as to ensure a more embracing result.

However, this task  faces further researches on this topic.  Also further studies should make provision for control sample to be selected from a typical rural areas where the use of the medium of television does not exist.

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